LINEAR MOTORS

1.1 Introduction to Linear Motors

A linear motor is an electric motor that produces motion in a straight line,

rather than rotational motion as in traditional electric motors.
It operates based on the same fundamental electromagnetic principles as
rotary motors but is "unrolled" so that the rotor and stator are laid out flat.
This design allows the motor to directly generate linear motion without the
need for mechanical transmission elements like gears, belts, or screws[1].
Cont…
• Hence here below is the sample picture of a linear motors in applications;
 1.2. Working Principle
• Linear motors work based on Lorentz Force and Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. When current flows through a conductor placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
• In a linear motor, this force is applied in a straight line, causing the moving
part (known as the forcer or slider) to accelerate along the track (the stator or
track)[2].
• Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
• Faraday’s First Law:
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an electromotive
force (EMF) is induced in the circuit[1].
• Faraday’s Second Law:
The magnitude of the induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux through the circuit. Mathematically
 Cont…
Lorentz Force Law
• The Lorentz force law states:
A charged particle q moving with velocity v in the presence of electric
field E and magnetic field B experiences a force F given by:
Where; Where:
• F = Force on the charge (N)
• q = Electric charge (C)
• E = Electric field (V/m)
• v = Velocity of the charge (m/s)
• B = Magnetic field (T, Tesla)
This law combines the effects of electric and magnetic fields on a moving
charge[3].
 1.3. Types of Linear Motors
• Linear motors come in several types, each designed to meet specific performance
and application requirements. The main classification is based on construction and
method of operation, such types are as follows[1].
[Link] Induction Motors (LIM)
• Use electromagnetic induction, similar to rotary induction motors.
• Commonly used in transportation systems and industrial automation.
[Link] Synchronous Motors (LSM)
• Operate with synchronized magnetic fields, offering high precision and speed.
• Used in maglev trains and precision positioning.
[Link] DC Motors
• Operate like a traditional brushed DC motor but laid flat.
• Simple, but less efficient and higher maintenance due to brushes.
4. Linear Reluctance motor
5. Linear Levitation Motors
 1.4. Advantages Linear Motors
• Direct Linear Motion; No need for mechanical transmission (gears, belts,
screws), reducing complexity and energy losses[2].
• High Precision and Accuracy; Especially true for linear synchronous and
stepper motors; ideal for positioning and automation systems.
• High Acceleration and Speed; Capable of achieving fast linear speeds with
rapid response times, suitable for high-throughput systems[2].
• Quiet and Low Maintenance; Fewer moving parts mean quieter operation and
minimal mechanical wear[2].
• Long Service Life; Reduced friction and contact wear extend operational
lifespan, particularly in magnetic levitation systems
• Compact and Flexible Design; Can be built into a wide range of machine
shapes and platforms with a low profile[2].
 1.5. Disadvantages Linear motors
• Typically higher initial cost than rotary systems.
• Requires complex control systems, especially for synchronization.
• Thermal Management Issues; Heat dissipation can be challenging due to
compact design and high power density[2].
• Force Ripple (Cogging);In some types, force fluctuations during motion can
affect smoothness (especially in synchronous motors without proper design).
• Limited Travel Range; Some linear motors (like linear stepper motors) have
limited stroke lengths unless external mechanisms are added[2].
• Susceptible to External Magnetic Fields; Environmental magnetic interference
can affect operation, especially in sensitive systems.
 1.6. Applications Linear Motors
The following are the applications of Linear Motors

1. Transportation and Mobility

i-Maglev Trains (Linear Induction or Synchronous Motors).[3]
• Magnetic levitation (maglev) trains use linear motors to both levitate and propel
the train without contact.
• Enables extremely high speeds (up to 600 km/h), smooth travel, and low
maintenance.
ii-Automated People Movers (APMs).[3]
• Used in airports, metro systems, and industrial campuses.
• Quiet and efficient due to the absence of rotating components and gearboxes.
Cont…

2. Industrial Automation and Material Handling[3].

i-Conveyor Systems (Linear Induction Motors)
• Linear motors are used to drive conveyors without contact, especially for high-
speed, high-precision logistics systems.
• Can individually control multiple carriers on the same track.
ii-Robotic Pick-and-Place Systems
• Linear motors provide fast, accurate, and repeatable linear motion for robotic
arms.
• Ideal for electronics assembly, packaging, and sorting.
Iii-Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
• Use embedded linear motors in the track to drive and control vehicle movement
without onboard motors.
3. CNC Machines and Machine Tools

i-High-Speed CNC Machining (Linear Synchronous Motors)

• Eliminates backlash and mechanical wear common with ball screw systems.
• Allows for ultra-fast positioning and smooth surface finishes[2].
ii-Laser Cutters / Engravers
• Linear motors enable precise beam control for intricate patterns and high-quality
cuts.
iii-3D Printers (Linear Stepper Motors)
• Stepper-based linear motors control the X, Y, and Z axes with high resolution.
• Offer reliable, low-cost motion control[2].
5. Medical and Laboratory Equipment[2]
i-MRI Beds and Imaging Tables
• Linear motors offer smooth, silent patient positioning.
ii-Automated Pipetting and Lab Analysis Devices
• Use small linear stepper motors for compact, precise control.

6. Consumer and Office Electronics

i-Printers and Scanners
• Use linear stepper motors to move print heads and scanner elements precisely
and efficiently.
ii-Camera Autofocus Systems
• Compact linear actuators adjust the lens focus with fine control and no
mechanical noise.
 Cont…
7. Semiconductor and Electronics Manufacturing

i-Wafer Steppers and Lithography Systems

• Require nanometer-scale accuracy.
• Linear motors provide frictionless, vibration-free motion critical for chip
manufacturing [3].
ii-Chip Placement and Soldering Machines
• Linear drives allow rapid and precise motion between components on printed
circuit boards (PCBs).
 2. Linear induction Motor (LIM)
2.1. Introduction
Linear Induction Motor (LIM) is a special induction motor which gives linear
motion instead of rotational motion provided by a conventional rotating
induction motor.
LIM has an open air gap with an entry end and an exit end [1].
2.2. Construction of LIM
A linear version of induction machines can produce linear or translation
motion.
Consider the cross sectional view of the rotary induction machine shown in the
figure 1a below.
Instead of a squirrel cage rotor, a cylinder of conductor (usually made of
aluminum) enclosing the rotor’s ferromagnetic core is considered.
If the rotary machine of fig.6.1a is cut along the line xy and unrolled, a linear
induction machine, shown in fig.6.1b, is obtained, instead of the terms rotor
and stator, it is more appropriate to call them primary and secondary members,
respectively, of the linear induction machine.

Fig.1 Induction motor. (a) Rotary induction motor. (b) Linear induction motor
The secondary or rotor of the linear induction motor consists of plate of copper
or aluminum.
A linear induction machine in its simplest form consists of a field system having
a 3 phase distributed winding placed in slots as shown in the Fig .2 (Short single
primary).
The field system may be single or double primary system. The secondary of this
type of induction machine is normally a conducting plate made of either copper
or aluminum in which interaction currents are induced.

Fig.2. Linear Induction Motor

 2.3. Classifications of LIM
The LIM can be classified only in single-sided LIM or SLIM and double-sided
LIM or DLIM
a. Single-sided LIM is shown in the Fig.1b [5]

b. Double-sided LIM formed when the primary is on both side of the secondary as
shown below

Fig.6.3 double-sided LIM

 2.4. Types of Linear Induction Motor
Depending upon the use, the linear induction machine can be one of the following
three types
i. Short Primary
The primary is short and the secondary is long as shown below. This type is useful when the
total distance to be travelled is large.
In this type over heating of rotor is eliminated because of the continuous movement of the
primary over cold part of the rotor, leaving behind the heated part. In this case primary moves
and the secondary are stationary.
ii. Short Secondary
The secondary is short in comparison with primary as shown in the fig. 3. This
type is useful when the travel is limited.
It must be light. The long primary and short secondary has the following
drawbacks:
 Long primary is uneconomical as it requires a long three phase primary
windings to be wound.
 Only that part of the primary windings which are adjacent the secondary are
effective at any one time.

Fig.3. Short Secondary Type of LIM

iii. Two Field Systems
•There are two field (Primary) systems, one on either side of the secondary as
shown in the fig.4.
•It is often used as it minimizes the leakage flux and avoids magnetic attraction
between the moving parts and the reaction rail which exists in earlier two types. [5]

Fig.4 two field systems

 2.5. Working Principle
If a three phase supply is connected to the stator of the rotary induction machine,
a flux density wave rotates in the air gap of the machine.
Similarly, when a three phase primary winding of the LIM is energized from a
balanced three phase source, a magnetic field moving in a straight line from one
end to other at a linear synchronous speed Vs is produced

Where,
 Is the pole pitch and
 is the frequency of the supply.
A travelling flux density wave is created that travels along the length of the primary.
This travelling wave will induce current in the secondary conductor.
The induced current will interact with the travelling wave to produce a
translational force F (or thrust).
If one member is fixed and the other is free to move, the force will make the
movable member move.
For example, if the primary in Fig. below is fixed, the secondary is free to move,
and the travelling wave moves from left to right, the secondary will also move to
the right, following the travelling wave.
Note that the synchronous velocity does not depend on the number of pole. If
the velocity of the moving members is V, then the slip is
On the line of conventional three phase induction motor, the power and thrust in
a linear induction motor can be expressed. The air gap power Pg is given by

And developed power Pr is given by

The developed Thrust F is therefore given by

•Symbols and Definitions
•f = Frequency of supply voltage (Hz)
•τ = Pole pitch (m)
•V_s = Synchronous speed (m/s)
•V = Actual speed of runner (m/s)
•S = Slip
•E_1 = EMF induced in the primary per phase (V)
•I_1 = Primary current per phase (A)
•P_g = Gross power developed
•P_m = Mechanical power developed
•ϕ = Power factor angle of the primary
•Φ_m = Maximum flux density in the air gap (Wb)
•T_ph = Turns per phase
•ac = Specific electric loading
•B_av = Specific magnetic loading
•L = Length of the field system (primary core) in the direction of motion (m)
•P = Number of poles
•W = Width of the field system (m)
•K_w = Winding factor
The per phase equivalent circuit of the linear induction motor has the same form as that of
the rotary induction motor as shown in Fig.2a below. [4]
The thrust-velocity characteristics of the LIM also has the same form as the
torque-speed characteristics of rotary induction motor, as shown in Fig.2b

a b
Fig.2a. Equivalent circuit of LIM. and (b) thrust-Velocity of LIM
 Continue….
End Effect [1] [2]
Because of open ended construction of linear induction motor, it displays the effect
known as end effect. This effect can be grouped into static end effect and dynamic
end effect.
In static end effect the mutual inductance of the phase windings are not equal to
one another.
This leads to asymmetric flux distribution in the air gap and gives rise to unequal
induced voltages in the phase winding.
The dynamic end effect occurs due to the relative motion between primary and
secondary.
As the primary moves over the secondary at every instant, a new secondary
conductor is coming under the leading edge of the primary, while one old secondary
conductor is leaving the trailing edge of the primary.
The conductor coming under the leading edge opposes the magnetic flux in
the air gap, while the conductor leaving the trailing edge tries to maintain the
flux. Therefore the flux distribution in the air gap is distorted.
The flux is weaker in the leading edge region as compared to the trailing
edge.
It also leads to braking action especially at lower values of slip.
The End Effects reduces the maximum thrust that the motor can produce.
Naturally, the end effect is more pronounced at high speed. [1]
 2.6. Advantages and disadvantages of LIM
Advantages of LIM
• A LIM require a large air gap, typically 15-30 mm, whereas the air gap for
rotary induction motor is small, typically 1-1.5 mm. The magnetizing reactance
is therefore quite low for LIM.
 Consequently, the excitation current is large,

Disadvantages of LIM
 The power factor is low.
 The LIM also operates at a larger slip
 The loss in the secondary is therefore high
 Hence the efficiency is low
2.7. Applications of Linear Induction Motor
An important application of a Linear Induction Motor is in
Transportation.
 Usually a short primary is on the vehicle and a long secondary is on
the Track, as shown in Fig. 6.4 below [1]
2.8. Certain Design Aspects of LIM
Choice of specific magnetic loading (Bav)
• Power factor, in
• Iron loss
• Overload capacity
Choice of specific electric loading (ac)
• Permissible temperature rise
• Size of machine
• Current density
• Voltage
• Overload capacity
Design of primary
• Shape of the slots
• Choice of number of slots
• Primary winding
• Length of air gap
The length of the air gap
Example1
Example 02
Example 3
 REFERENCES
[1] H. A. Toliyat and G. B. Kliman, Handbook of Electric Motors, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL,
USA: CRC Press, 2004.pp213

[2] “Linear motors – an overview,” Motion Control Tips, Oct. 2021. [Online]. Available:
[Link] [Accessed: May 15, 2025].

[3] I. Boldea, Linear Electric Machines, Drives, and MAGLEVs Handbook. Boca Raton, FL,
USA: CRC Press, 2017.pp90

[4] P. Sen, "Linear Induction Motors (LIM) and Linear Synchronous Motor (LSM)," in
Principles of electric Machines and Power Electronics, Wirey, 2013, pp. 267-338.

[5] E. Janardanan, "Linear Electric Machines," in Special Electrical Machines, PHI Learning
Private LTD, 2020, pp. 201-238.