Chapter 3
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE,
INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
–Resistance is classified based on its
measurement range.
• Low Resistances:
–Resistances < 1 Ω.
–Examples:
• Copper windings in armatures.
• Ammeter shunts.
• Contacts and switches.
Cont..
• Medium Resistances:
– Resistances between 1 Ω to 100 kΩ.
– Examples:
• Electrical apparatus.
• Electronic circuits.
• Carbon resistors.
• Metal film resistors.
• High Resistances:
– Resistances > 100 kΩ.
– Examples:
• Insulation resistances in electrical equipment.
Measurement of Medium Resistances
Medium range resistances are typically measured using
various methods.
• Methods for Measurement:
– Ohm Meter Method
– Voltmeter-Ammeter Method
– Substitution Method
– Wheatstone Bridge Method
Wheatstone Bridge for Measuring Resistance
• The Wheatstone bridge is a widely used circuit for
measuring medium range resistances.
• Components:
– Consists of four resistance arms.
– Includes a battery (voltage source) and a galvanometer
(null detector).
Cont..
Wheatstone bridge for measurement of resistance
Cont..
• Balance Condition:
– At balance, no current flows through the
galvanometer.
– At balance, the following conditions are
satisfied:
– Detector current is zero: = 0 ⇒ : = : and
=Potentials at nodes B and C are equal: VB = VC
• Voltage drop in arm AB equals voltage drop
across arm AC: VAB = VAC
• Voltage drop in arm BD equals voltage drop
Cont..
• At the balanced 'null' position, the galvanometer behaves
as if open-circuited.
• From the relation VAB= VAC we have I1 × Rx= I2 × R2
(Eq. 1)
Cont..
• Measurement of the unknown resistance:
– It's determined in terms of three known resistances.
– Arms BD and CD, containing fixed resistances R3 and R4,
are called the ratio arms.
– Arm AC, containing the known variable resistance R2, is
called the standard arm.
• Range of Measurement:
– The range of resistance values that can be measured by
the bridge can be increased simply by adjusting the ratio
R3/R4.
Cont..
• Errors in a Wheatstone Bridge
– Although the Wheatstone bridge is convenient and accurate,
it is prone to errors.
• Types of Errors:
– Discrepancies in true vs. marked values of resistances.
– Inaccuracy of the balance point due to insufficient
galvanometer sensitivity.
– Changes in bridge resistances due to self-heating (I2R).
– Thermal EMFs in the bridge circuit or galvanometer
connection points.
– Errors from resistances of leads and contacts (usually
negligible).
– Personal errors in finding the null point, taking readings, or
calculations.
Measurement of Low Resistances
– Measurement of low resistances presents challenges
due to appreciable resistances in leads and contacts.
• Challenges:
– Resistances of leads and contacts can cause significant
errors, especially with low resistance values.
• Methods for Measurement:
– Voltmeter-Ammeter Method
– Kelvin's Double-Bridge Method
– Potentiometer Method
Kelvin's Double-Bridge Method
• Overview:
– Kelvin's double-bridge method is one of the best
methods for measuring low resistances.
• Principle:
– Modification of the Wheatstone bridge to eliminate
errors due to contacts and lead resistances.
• Components:
– Similar to the Wheatstone bridge but with additional
connections to bypass lead resistances.
Cont..
• Operation:
– Provides accurate measurements by compensating for
lead and contact resistances.
• Advantages:
– High accuracy in measuring low resistances.
– Minimizes errors due to lead and contact resistances.
Megohmmeter (Meggar) for High Resistance Measurement
• The megohmmeter, or meggar, is a popular portable
insulation resistance measuring instrument used for
various applications such as measuring insulation
resistance of electrical machines, insulators and bushings.
• Internal Diagram:
– The meggar typically consists of a small permanent magnet
and DC generator that develops high DC voltages (e.g., 500 V
DC).
– Some models may have generators with different voltage
outputs (e.g., 100 V, 250 V, 1000 V, or 2500 V).
• Some meggers also incorporate rectified AC as a power
supply (old meggar).
Cont..
Meggar for high resistance measurement
A.C. Bridges
• Introduction to A.C. Bridges:
– A.C. bridges are popular, convenient, and accurate
instruments for measuring unknown inductance,
capacitance, and related quantities.
– Derived from the conventional DC Wheatstone
bridge.
– A.C. bridges consist of four arms, an alternating
power supply, and a balance detector.
Sources and Detectors in A.C. Bridges
Power Supply:
– For low-frequency measurements, bridge power supply
can be obtained directly from the power line.
– Higher frequency requirements are happened by
electronic oscillators, offering stable and adjustable
frequencies.
– Their output waveforms closely resemble sinusoidal
waves, suitable for most bridge measurements.
Cont..
Tuned Detectors:
– Vibration galvanometers are commonly used as tuned
detectors.
– Particularly effective in the power frequency and low
audio-frequency ranges.
– They offer highest sensitivity when operated below 200
Hz, covering a frequency range of 5 Hz to 1000 Hz.
Balance detectors :
– Headphones or audio amplifiers serve as balance
detectors in A.C. bridges at frequencies of 250 Hz and
above.
GENERAL BALANCE EQUATION FOR FOUR-ARM BRIDGE
• An AC bridge in its general form is shown in Figure
below , with the four arms being represented by
four unspecified impedances , , and .
Cont..
• Balance in the bridge is achieved by adjusting one or
more of the bridge arms.
• Balance is indicated by zero response of the detector.
• At balance, no current flows through the detector,
meaning there is no potential difference across the
detector.
• In other words, the potentials at points B and C are the
same. This occurs when the voltage drop from A to B
equals the voltage drop from A to C, both in magnitude
and phase
Thus, we can write in terms of complex quantities:
V1 V 2
I1 V 1 I 2 V2 (1)
Cont..
• Balancing:
– The bridge is balanced by varying L2and one of the resistors
R3or R4.
– Alternatively, R3and R4can be kept constant, and the
resistance of one of the other two arms can be varied by
connecting an additional resistor.
• Under Balanced Condition:
– No current flows through the detector.
– Currents in arms AB and BD are equal ( I1 ).
– Similarly, currents in arms AC and CD are equal ( I2).
– Since nodes B and D are at the same potential under balanced
condition, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal ((V3
= V4); similarly, voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal
MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE
Schering Bridge
• Schering bridges are widely utilized in industries
for measuring capacitance, dissipation factor, and
loss angles.
• The configuration of a Schering bridge and the
corresponding phasor diagram under balanced
condition are illustrated in the figure.
Cont..
Schering bridge under balanced condition: (a) Configuration (b) Phasor diagram
Cont..
• Components:
– C₁ (Unknown capacitor): The capacitance to be measured,
with a parallel loss resistance r1r₁r1representing dielectric
losses.
– C₂ (Standard capacitor): A capacitor with a known
capacitance value.
– R₃ and R₄: Known resistances used for balancing the bridge.
– C₄: Represents a capacitor with losses (for calibration or
testing).
– Detector: A sensitive device (like a null detector) to detect
the balance point.
– AC Source (V): Provides an alternating voltage to the bridge.
Cont..
• Balanced Condition:
– Under balanced condition, no current flows through
the detector, resulting in nodes B and C being at the
same potential.
– This implies V1=V2and V3=V4.
Ended
