LAB MANUAL

22EE34501- ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY
 REGULATION- 2022
SYLLABUS

22EE34501- ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Bridge Networks –DC Bridges

2. Bridge Networks –AC Bridges

3. Transducers: (a) Temperature (b) Pressure (c) Displacement.

4. Instrumentation amplifier.

5. A/D and D/A converters.

6. Measurement of three phase power and power factor.

 INDEX

EX.
DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT MARKS SIGNATURE
NO

DC Bridges
1. a). Wheatstone bridge
b). Kelvin’s Double Bridge

AC Bridges
a). Anderson’s bridge
2.
b). Maxwell’s inductance bridge
c). Schering Bridge

Displacement and pressure transducers.

a). Displacement Transducer - LVDT
3.
b). Measurement of pressure using
Transducer

4. Instrumentation Amplifier

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and

5.
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

Measurement of three phase power and

6.
power factor

Avg.Mark

Staff Incharge
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Wheatstone bridge)

TABULATION:

Rx Ω Rx Ω
Sl. R1 R2 R3 Percentage
(Actual) (Observed)
No Ω Ω Ω Error

4
 DC BRIDGES
Exp No: 1 a.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Date:

AIM:
To determine the value of unknown resistance using Wheatstone bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 Wheatstone Bridge Trainer kit 1
2 Unknown Resistor 1
3 CRO 1
4 Connecting Wires 1
5 Digital Multimeter 1

THEORY:
Wheatstone bridge trainer consists of basic bridge circuit with a built in 1 kHz oscillator and
an isolation transformer. The arm AC and AD consists of a 1Kohm resistor. Arms BD consists of
variable resistor. The unknown resistor (Rx) whose value is to be determined is connected across
the terminal BC .The resistor R2 is varied suitably to obtain the bridge balance condition. The
DMM is used to determine the balanced output voltage of the bridge circuit.

FORMULA:

Rx= R1. R3/ R2 Ω

Where,
Rx= unknown resistance in Ω.
R1= standard variable arm resistance in Ω.
R2 & R3 = Fixed ratio arms resistance in Ω.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Before switch ON the power supply points should be in minimum position.

2. Before switch ON the unknown resistance set the multi meter in correct position.
3. The resistance across the variable pot R1 is to be measured using
multi meter disconnecting terminal across it.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the trainer and check the power supply to be +15V.
3. Connect the unknown resistor in the arm marked Rx.
4. Observe the sine wave at the secondary of the isolation transformer on an oscilloscope.
5. Select some values of R2 and R3.
6. Connect the oscilloscope between the ground and the output point.
7. Vary R1 from the minimum position in a clockwise direction. If the selection of
R2 & R3 is correct the balance or null point can be observed on CRO. [(i.e.)
amplitude of the Output comes to a minimum for particular value of R1 & then
again increases by varying R1 in the same clockwise direction].If that is not case,
select another value of R2 or R3.
8. After balancing, measure the standard variable pot R1 using multimeter.
9. Calculate the values of unknown resistance using formula.
RESULT:
Thus the value of unknown resistance is measured by using Wheatstone bridge circuit
 Wheatstone bridge

Viva-voce questions

1. Wheatstone bridge is a/an AC Bridge or DC Bridge

Explanation: The Wheatstone bridge is a D.C. bridge that is used for the measurement of medium
resistance. Schering Bridge is used for measurement of high voltages. AC bridges comprise of Anderson
Bridge, Maxwell Bridge etc.

2. Wheatstone bridge is used to measure resistance in the range of 1Ω to a few megaohms

Explanation: Wheatstone bridge is the simplest form of bridge circuit. It is basically used for the
measurement of medium resistances in the range of 1Ω to a few megaohms.

3. Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the D.C. resistance of various types of wires for

a) determining their effective resistance

b) computing the power dissipation
c) quality control of wire

Explanation: Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the d.c. resistance of various types of wires for
controlling the quality of the wires. Voltage source maintains a constant e.m.f in the bridge circuit.

4.What are types of faults in a telephone line?

line to line or line to ground

Explanation: In a telephone line, line to line and line to ground faults occur. Symmetrical,
unsymmetrical, open circuit, short circuit, triple line to line and line to ground faults occur in power
systems.
 Viva-Voce Question

1. How can a Wheatstone bridge be used for the measurement of physical parameters?

Along with an op amp

Explanation: A Wheatstone bridge can be used for the measurement of physical parameters such as
temperature, strain, light, etc by making use of an operational amplifier. Rectifier circuits are used for
conversion of ac to dc.

2. What may be the variations on a Wheatstone Bridge can measure?

Measure quantities such as capacitance, inductance and impedance

Explanation: In its simplest form a Whetstone bridge consists of resistive arms. A Wheatstone bridge
is used for the measurement of quantities such as capacitance, inductance and impedance by
making use of the variations.

3. State one of the simplest applications of a Wheatstone bridge

Answer: light measurement

Explanation: Wheatstone bridge consists of simple resistances in the ratio arms. One of the simplest
applications of a Wheatstone bridge is the measurement of light by making use of a photo resistive
device.

4. How Thermal compensation can be provided in a Wheatstone bridge?

Answer: using more than one resistive sensor

Explanation: By making use of more than one resistive sensor within the four arms of a Wheatstone
bridge we get a full bridge, half bridge or a quarter bridge setup with automatic balancing effect.

5. Why Telephone companies make use of the Wheatstone bridge?

Locating the cable faults

Explanation: Cable faults in telephones can be located by telephone companies by making use
of a Wheatstone bridge. Telephonic resistances are determined using suitable techniques. Dial
tone is maintained through optical fibre technology
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Kelvin’s Double Bridge)

TABULATION:

SL. Q M Rp Rx = (Q/M)Rp
NO Ω Ω Ω Ω

4
Exp No: 1b. DC BRIDGES
Date: KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE

AIM:
To measure the low resistance using Kelvin’s Double bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 Kelvin’s Double Bridge Trainer kit 1
2 Unknown Resistor 1
3 CRO 1
4 Connecting Wires 1
5 Galvanometer 1

THEORY:
Kelvin’s double bridge is a modification of whetstone’s bridge and provides more accuracy
in measurement of low resistances. It incorporates two sets of ratio arms and the use of four
terminal resistors for the low resistance arms, as shown in figure. Rx is the resistance under test and
S is the resistor of the same higher current rating than one under test. Two resistances Rx and S are
connected in series with a short link of as low value of resistance r as possible. P, Q, p, q are four
known non inductive resistances, one pair of each (P and p, Q and q) are variable. A sensitive
galvanometer G is connected across dividing points PQ and pq. The ratio PQ is kept the same as pq
these ratios have been varied until the galvanometer reads zero.

FORMULA USED:

Rx = (P/Q)S (Ω)
Where,
P= Resistance of left arm of the bridge.
Q= Resistance of right arm of the bridge.
S= Variable potentiometer to balance the bridge.
 PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connect externally a galvanometer across the terminals a and b.
2. Connect the unknown resistance Rx as marked on the trainer.
3. The ratio of P & Q selected depends upon balancing the bridge using trial & error method
4. The resistance across the variable pot S is measured only after switch OFF the Power
Supply in the kit & by disconnecting the connections across S.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Trainer power supply is switched ON.
3. Energize the trainer by switching ON & check the power supply to be +5V
4. The galvanometer deflection shows the imbalance condition of the nature of the bridge.
5. The potentiometer S is varied in steps for proper balance of the bridge & the value of S is
Noted at balanced condition.
6. The value of unknown resistance is calculated by using the formula & the value of P, Q, S

RESULT:
Thus the value of unknown resistance is verified by using Kelvin’s double bridge circuit.
 Kelvin’s bridge
Viva-Voce Question

1. Kelvin’s bridge consists of _________

Double bridge

Explanation: Kelvin’s bridge consists of two additional arms compared to a Wheatstone bridge. Hence
it is also known as a double bridge.

2. What is the range of resistance measured in a Kelvin bridge

Explanation: Kelvin Bridge is used for the measurement of low resistances. Low resistances
vary in the range of 1Ω to 10 μΩ.

3. What might be the accuracy of Kelvin Bridge is of the order of

±0.05 to ±0.2 %

Explanation: Kelvin Bridge is used for the measurement of low resistance, the accuracy of
measurement of low resistances in a Kelvin bridge is of the order of ±0.05 to ±0.2 %.

4. The balance equation of Kelvin Bridge is

Explanation: The balance equation in a Kelvin bridge is given by the relation Rx = R1R3⁄R2.
where,
R1, R2, R3, and Rx form the ratio arms
Rx is the value of the unknown resistance.

5. What is the effect of load and contact resistance in Kelvin Bridge?

Independent

Explanation: Effect of contact and lead resistances are completely eliminated in a Kelvin bridge as
they don’t appear in the balance equation. Hence the Kelvin Bridge is independent of the load
and contact resistances.
 Viva-Voce Question

1. The relation between ratio of resistance arms and ratio of resistance arms of second bridge is

Equal

Explanation: The relation between the ratio of the resistances of resistance arm and second
resistance arm is equal for balance condition..

2 Why Kelvin Bridge is used for measurement of low resistance?

Due to contact and lead resistance

Explanation: While measuring very low resistances the contact and lead resistances cause significant
errors in the value of the measured resistance. As a result Kelvin bridge is used for measurement of
low resistances..

3. What is the condition to achieve a high sensitivity in a Kelvin bridge?

Answer: light measurement

Explanation: Wheatstone bridge consists of simple resistances in the ratio arms. One of the
simplest applications of a Wheatstone bridge is the measurement of light by making use of a
photo resistive device.

4. Kelvin bridge can be calibrated to read

Answer: using more than one resistive sensor

Explanation: By making use of more than one resistive sensor within the four arms of a
Wheatstone bridge we get a full bridge, half bridge or a quarter bridge setup with
automatic balancing effect.

5. Why can’t a Kelvin bridge be used for the measurement of low Quality factor value?

Due to balance problem

Explanation: A Kelvin bridge can be used for the measurement of high Quality factor values.
Due to bridge imbalance problem, Kelvin Bridge can’t be used for measuring low Quality factor
values.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Anderson’s Bridge)

TABULATION:

INDUCTANCE - L(mH)
R2 R3 R4 R R1
SL.
NO
Ω Ω Ω Ω Ω
Actual Observed

4
Exp No: 2a. AC BRIDGES
Date: ANDERSON’S BRIDGE

AIM:

To find the value of unknown inductance using an Anderson’s bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 Anderson’s Bridge Trainer kit 1
2 Unknown Resistor 1
3 CRO 1
4 Connecting Wires 1
5 Digital Multimeter 1

FORMULA USED:
Lx= C (R3 / R4) [R (R4 + R2) + (R2 R4)]

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before switch ON the power supply points should be in minimum position.
2. Before switch ON the unknown inductance set the multimeter in correct position.
PROCEDURE:
1. Patch the connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Connect the unknown resistance
3. Now vary resistance R to some value till resistance at Lx (unknown) point and
switch on the power supply, you hear sound.
4. Now vary R and R1 one after one to hear least sound possible or no sound at all.
5. By using CRO for balancing the bridge, while balancing first adjust R pot in
clockwise direction then the waveform amplitude decreases & then increases,
later adjust R1 then amplitude decreases & then increases, stop varying the pot R1
& measure the resistance R1 & R.
6. Remove the patching and note down the reading according to the table given
below and valuate the value of unknown inductance by given formula.
7. Repeat the experiment for different values of inductance.
RESULT:
Thus calculate the value of unknown inductance by using an Anderson’s bridge
 Anderson Bridge
Viva-Voce Question

1. Anderson bridge is used for _________

The measurement of self-inductance

Explanation: The Anderson Bridge is one of the important bridges used for the measurement of self-inductances
in terms of a standard capacitance value. Resistance is usually measured by making use of a Whetstone’s
bridge or Kelvin’s double bridge.

2. Anderson bridge is a modified form of ________

Maxwell Bridge
Explanation: The Anderson’s bridge is a modified form of Maxwell’s bridge which is used for the measurement
of self-inductances in terms of a standard capacitance value. Wheatstone bridge and Kelvin Bridge are used for
the measurement of medium and low resistances respectively.

3. Anderson’s bridge is basically used for ________

Measurement of inductance
Explanation: Anderson’s bridge is used basically for the precise measurement of self- inductances in terms of a
standard capacitance value over a wide range of values.

4. Balance equation for computing the inductance is ________

Explanation: The balance equation for computing the self-inductance in an Anderson’s bridge is given by
the equation, Lx = CR3 R5.
where, C is the standard capacitance
R3 and R5 are the known non-inductive resistances..
5. When the capacitor used is imperfect, the inductance value changes.
a) True
b) False

False
Explanation: For an imperfect capacitor used in the Anderson Bridge, the value of inductance remains
unaffected. The value of R1 changes.

Viva-Voce Question

1. The Anderson’s bridge is used for the measurement of capacitance.

a) True
b) False
True

Explanation: When a calibrated self-inductance is available, the value of unknown capacitance can be
computed by making use of an Anderson’s bridge.
2. Anderson’s bridge is used for the measurement of ________

Capacitance

Explanation: Anderson’s bridge is used for the measurement of capacitance. Unknown capacitance value
can be measured accurately in terms of the self-inductance of one of the ratio arms of the bridge.

6. Anderson’s bridge makes use of a variable capacitance.

a) True
b) False

False

Explanation: An Anderson’s bridge makes use of a fixed capacitance value. Most of the other AC bridges
used for the measurement of either capacitance, inductance or impedance make use of a variable
capacitance..

7. Anderson’s bridge is very basic

a) True
b) False

False
Explanation: An Anderson’s bridge is basically used for the measurement of unknown capacitance value in
terms of the self-inductance of one of the standard ratio arms. It is a complex bridge comprising of equivalent
star-delta networks for computation of resistance and inductance.

8. Bridge balance equations are ________

Complex in nature

Explanation: An Anderson’s bridge is basically used for the measurement of unknown capacitance value in
terms of the self-inductance of one of the ratio arms. It consists of real as well as complex terms. It also
comprises of star-delta equivalent networks for impedance computations.

9. Components in an Anderson’s bridge are ________

more

Explanation: An Anderson’s bridge is a complex type of bridge used basically for the measurement of unknown
capacitance. It consists of several resistances, inductances and capacitances in the ratio arms
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge)

TABULATION:

Inductance
R1 R3 Lx mH
Sl.No
Ω Ω Actual Observed

4
Exp No: 2b. AC BRIDGES
MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE BRIDGE
Date:

AIM
To find the value of unknown inductance using a Maxwell’s inductance bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge Trainer kit 1
2 Unknown Inductance 1
3 CRO 1
4 Connecting Wires 1
5 Digital Multimeter 1

THEORY:
In this bridge, an inductance is measured by comparison with a standard variable
capacitance. The connection at the balanced condition is given in the circuit diagram.
Let L1 = Unknown Inductance.
R1 = effective resistance of Inductor L1.
R2, R3 and R4 = Known non-inductive resistances.
C4 = Variable standard Capacitor.

FORMULA USED:
Lx = R1R3C
Q= L1/R1
Rx= R1R3/R2

Note: In this bridge resistance R1 is for maximum variation of output and resistance R2 and R is
Minute
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the connection diagram shown above
2. Connect the unknown inductance at the Lx (Unknown) point.
3. Connect the CRO across P and Q.
4. Switch ON the unit.
5. Choose R3, such that you can obtain a maximum variation of output.
6. Now set R2 to maximum position.
7. Vary the potentiometer R1 such that the amplitude of sine wave will is decreases and that
one point it will obtain a minimum of zero amplitude and then it will start increasing at
that point stop the tuning and switch OFF the unit.
8. Remove the patching at R1 and find the resistance using multimeter and note down the
reading according to the table given below and calculate the value of unknown inductance.
9. One can verify the balancing condition by connecting the bridge output (P & Q) to the input
(P & Q) of audio power amplifier and you can hear a minimum noise or no noise. If you
vary the potentiometer R1 you can hear a maximum noise.
RESULT:
Thus the value of unknown inductance was found using by a Maxwell’s inductance Bridge
Circuit.
 Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge
Viva-Voce Question

1. Maxwell Bridge can be used for Inductance/Capacitance

Explanation: A Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge is used for the measurement of inductance by making
comparison with a standard capacitance value. Voltmeter is used to measure voltage, while an ammeter is used to
measure current.

2. State the Quality factor of the Maxwell’s circuit

Explanation: The quality factor of a Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge is given by the relation

3. Standard inductor requires no shielding.

a) True
b) False

False
Explanation: Stray magnetic fields are present in a circuit consisting of inductances and capacitances.In
order to eliminate the stray magnetic fields proper shielding is required for the
Standard Inductance.

4 .Standard inductor provides rated inductance directly.

a) True
b) False

False
Explanation: When the current flow through the standard inductance is adjusted precisely, it provides its rated
value of inductance.
 Viva-Voce Question

1.. What is the significance of capacitors in a Maxwell bridge?

They are cheap

Explanation: In a Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge, the capacitors are cheaper when compared to stable
and accurate standard value of inductors.

2. How can we write the bridge balance equation?

Admittance form

Explanation: The bridge balance equation for a Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge consists of admittances.
This is due to the connection of a capacitance in parallel across the resistance in one of the ratio arms.

3. Balance equation for computing the unknown resistance is

Explanation: The balance condition for determining the value of the unknown resistance is given by the relation
Rx = R2 R3⁄R1.

where, R1 and R3 are variable resistances and R2 is a fixed resistance.

4. Balance equation for computing the value of the unknown inductance is

Explanation: The balance equation for determining the value of the unknown inductance is given by the relation
Lx= R2 R3 C1.
where,
C1 is the capacitance across the resistance R1
R3 is a variable resistance and R2 is a fixed resistance.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:(Schering Bridge)

TABULATION:

Capacitance Cx
C2 R3 R4
Dissipation
Sl.No µF
Factor (D)
µF Ω Ω Measured
True Value
Value
1

4
Exp No: 2c. AC BRIDGES
Date: SCHERING’S BRIDGE

AIM:
To measure the value of unknown capacitance using Schering’s bridge & dissipation factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty
1 Schering Bridge Trainer kit 1
2 Decade Capacitance Box 1
3 CRO 1
4 Connecting Wires 1
5 Digital Multimeter 1

THEORY:
In this bridge the arm BC consists of a parallel combination of resistor & a
Capacitor and the arm AC contains capacitor. The arm BD consists of a set of resistors
varying from 1Ω to 1
MΩ. In the arm AD the unknown capacitance is connected. The bridge consists of a
built in power supply, 1 kHz oscillator and a detector.

BALANCE EQUATIONS:
Let C1=Capacitor whose capacitance is to be measured.
R1= a series resistance representing the loss in the
capacitor C1. C2= a standard capacitor.
R3= a non-inductive resistance.
C4= a variable capacitor.
R4= a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with variable
capacitor C4. At balance, Z1Z4=Z2 Z3

FORMULA USED:
Cx = (R4/R3)C2D1 = ωC4R4
C4 = Cx
R4 = Rx
 PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the trainer board and connect the unknown in the arm marked Cx.
2. Observe the sine wave at the output of oscillator and patch the circuit by using the wiring
diagram.
3. Observe the sine wave at secondary of isolation transformer on CRO. Select some value
of R3.
4. Connect the CRO between ground and the output point of imbalance amplifier.
5. Vary R4 (500Ω potentiometer) from minimum position in the clockwise direction.
6. If the selection of R3 is correct, the balance point (DC line) can be observed on CRO.
(That is at balance the output waveform comes to a minimum voltage for a particular
value of R4 and then increases by varying R3 in the same clockwise direction). If that is
not the case, select another value of R4.

7. Capacitor C2 is also varied for fine balance adjustment. The balance of the bridge can be
observed by using loud speaker.
8. Tabulate the readings and calculate the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.

RESULT:
Thus the value of unknown capacitance and dissipation factor are found using Schering’s
bridge.
 Schering Bridge
Viva-Voce Question

1 Schering Bridge is one of the most widely used AC bridges.

a) True
b) False

True

Explanation: Schering Bridge is an AC bridge used for the measurement of unknown capacitance,
dielectric loss and power factor. It is one of the most commonly used AC bridges..

2. Schering Bridge is used for _________

Low and high voltages

Explanation: Schering Bridge is used for both low as well as high voltages. A particular bridge connection is
used for low voltage. High voltages employ the use of a different type of Schering Bridge.

3. Dissipation factor is the reciprocal of Quality factor.

a) True
b) False

True

Explanation: Dissipation factor for a circuit is defined as the reciprocal of the quality factor.
It is given by the expression Q = 1⁄wCR. It basically provides information about the quality of a capacitor.

4. What is the use of a Schering bridge?

A Schering bridge can be used with both low voltage as well as high voltages. A Schering Bridge is
basically
used for the measurement of small capacitances at low voltages with precision..
5. State the range of Commercial Schering Bridge can be used for the measurement of capacitances

From 100pF to 1μF

Explanation: Commercial Schering bridges are used for the measurement of capacitances in the range
of a few pico farads to a few micro farads. Accuracy varies in the range of –2% to +2%.
 Viva-Voce Question

1. How will you find Power factor of a Schering bridge

Explanation: The power factor of the RC combination in a Schering bridge is given by the relation

p.f. = cos∅x = R x ⁄Zx .

where,
Rx is the series resistance
Zx is the series impedance comprising of Rx and Cx.
2 State the Quality factor expression

c) Q = X⁄R

Explanation: The quality factor the Schering bridge circuit is defined as Q = X ⁄R .

1
⁄
where, X = wC is the capacitive impedance.

3 . What is δ in a series RC circuit?

Voltage between series RC combination and C

Explanation: In a series RC circuit, δ refers to the angle between the series combination of Rx, Cx and the
voltage across the capacitance Cx. δ is also known as the loss angle.

4. What is the expression for the loss angle?

tan⁡ δ = ωR4 C4
Explanation: The expression for the loss angle can be computed as the ratio of the tangent of the
voltage drop across resistance Rx to the voltage drop across the capacitance Cx.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Study of Displacement Transducer - LVDT

GENERAL DIAGRAM
Exp No: 3a. STUDY OF DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER – LVDT
Date: (Linear variable Displacement Transducer)

AIM:
To study the displacement transducer using LVDT and to obtain its characteristics

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 LVDT Trainer kit 1
2 Connecting Wires 1
3 Digital Multi-meter 1
4 Screw gauge 1

FORMULA USED:
%ERROR = [(Displayed Displacement – Actual Displacement)/ Actual Displacement] x100

PRECAUTIONS:
1. While taking reading on scale parallel error has to be avoided.
2. Smooth gradual movement of the core to be ensured.

THEORY:

LVDT is used to measure position and displacement. LVDT consists of two identical
secondary (symmetrically placed on both sides of primary). One primary coil and a movable core called
actuator. The displacement to being measured is transferred to the magnetic core in the flux linkage.
When the primary coil is connected to a sinusoidal excitation source, the amount of voltage on the
secondary S1 and S2 depends on the position of the core m1(x) or m2(x) corresponding to null position x.
there are three positions can be ac-counted.

(a) Core is placed centrally (within the primary coil area) hence x=0.
(b) Towards coil s1 side where x= Δx.
(c) Towards coil S2 side where x= - Δx.

In situation first the minor flux linkage obtained called residual flux, but as the S 1 and S2 are
connected in anti-series way the output is negligible due to phase cancellation between these minor
voltages. In position (b) the S1 and primary have maximum linkage the out-put voltage eo will be more
than (a) in polarity similar to the excitation signal. In position (c) the output voltage eo will be again more
than (a), but in opposite polarity than eo. The magnitude of output voltage eo depends upon the
displacement of the core to either side, while the polarity depends upon the core position. Thus LVDT is a
transformer which can produce an output voltage in according to displacement and position.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply to the LVDT module.
2. Connect the CRO at T1 to check the input sine wave signal. Adjust the frequency to kHz.
3. Place the LVDT at the null position (10mm) and adjust the offset to display zero on the
DVM (actual displacement).calibrated in displacement of the core. Gradually move the core
of the LVDT in the positive direction (20mm) and Note the reading on the display (mm).It
should be around 10mm, if it not adjust the gain to display 10mm.
4. Repeat step 4 in the opposite direction.

5. Tabulate the readings of actual displacement and displayed on the DVM. The LVDT core may
be moved through a distance of 20mm.
TABULATION:

OUTPUT VOLTAGE DISPLAYED

ACTUAL
Vo DISPLACEMENT % ERROR
DISPLACEMENT
volts Dd (mm)
Da(mm)

MODEL GRAPH:

Vo

Displacement in mm
RESULT:

Thus the displacement and characteristics of transducer are studied using LVDT.
 Viva-voce Questions
1. What is LVDT?
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) converts the mechanical energy into
differential electrical energy.

2. What are the windings are available?

It has single primary winding, and two secondary windings wound on a hollow cylindrical
former.
An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affects the magnetic
Coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.

3. List the advantages of LVDT.

The advantages of LVDT are:
i. High range of displacement measurement.
ii. Friction and electrical isolation.
iii. Immunity from external effects.
iv. High input and high sensitivity.
v. Ruggedness
vi. Low hysteresis and low power consumption.

4. List the limitations of LVDT.

The limitations of LVDT are:
i. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
ii. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
iii. Dynamic response is limited.
iv. Temperature also affects the transducer.

5. How do you classify transducers?

On the basis of transduction form used.
• As primary and secondary transducers.
• As active and passive transducers.
• As analog and digital transducers.
• As transducers and inverse transducers.

6. What are the selection criteria for the transducer?

• Operating range.
• Sensitivity.
• Environmental conditions.
• Errors.
• Accuracy.
 Viva-voce Questions

7. Define the primary and secondary transducers?

Primary Transducer: When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and
physical phenomenon is converted into electrical form directly then such a transducer is called
the primary transducer.
Secondary Transducer: When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and
then its output being of some from other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for
Conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of secondary
Transducers.

8. What are the applications of LVDT?

There are some important applications of linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) which
are given below,

o It act as a secondary transducer, it is used to measure force, weight and pressure.

o The LVDT can be used for displacement measurement ranging from fraction of mm to
few cm.

9. What are the disadvantages of LVDT?

There are some disadvantages of linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) which are given
below,

o It has large primary voltage produce distortion in output.

o Temperature affects the performance.
o Sensitive to stray magnetic field.

10. Write any four basic requirements of transducer?

Ruggedness: It should be capable for withstanding overload.
Linearity: The input-output characteristics should be linear.
No Hysteresis: It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is
Varied from low to high value and vice versa.
Residual Deformation: There should be no deformations on removal of load after long
period of time.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
(Measurement of Pressure Using Transducer- Bourdon Tube)

TABULATION:

Signal
Displayed Pressure
Gauge Pressure (Psig) conditioned
(Psig)
% Error
output voltage
Volts

MODEL GRAPH:

Vo

Pressure Gauge
Exp No:3b. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE USING TRANSDUCER
Date: BOURDON TUBE

AIM:
To measure the pressure using pressure transducer with respect to signal conditioned output
voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 Pressure Trainer kit 1
2 Connecting Wires 1
3 Digital Multi-meter 1

FORMULA USED:
Percentage Error = [(Gauge Pressure-Displaced Pressure)/Di placed Pressure] * 100

PROCEDURE
1. Install the sensor setup and interface the 9 pin D connector with ITB-16-CE kit
2. Connect the multi-meter in Volt mode across T5 and GND for the signal conditioned
voltage measurement. 3. Switch "ON" the module.
4. Initially, open the air release valve and exhaust the tank inlet air and nullify the signal conditioned
output voltage by using zero adjustment POT.
5. Now, close the opened air release valve and apply the pressure of 50 Psig to the cylinder and
adjust the display to 50 Psig by using gain adjustment POT.
6. After the gain calibration, open the air release valve and exhaust the tank inlet air.
7. Again, close the opened air release valve. By pressing the pump piston, the pump sucks the air
from atmosphere and supplies it to the cylinder. Then, the pressure will be developed in the
cylinder and measure t h e signal conditioned output voltage (V) across T5 and GND.
8. Gradually increase the pressure the pump piston and note down the signal conditioned output
voltage (V) f o r corresponding gauge pressure.
9. Tabulate the readings and plot a graph between gauge pressure and signal conditioned output
voltage (V).
RESULT:

Thus the pressure with respect to signal conditioned output voltage using pressure transducer
is measured.
Viva questions:

1. What is Transducer?
A transducer is a device which converts physical energy in to electrical energy.
Eg. LVDT , Strain guage, thermistor etc.

2. Give the factors to be considered in selecting a transducer.

Operating range, sensitivity, electrical output characteristics, errors, accuracy,environmental conditions .

3. What is known as thermocouple effect & how do you use it in a transducer?

• It is a thermoelectric transducer which converts the thermal energy into an electrical energy.
• It is mostly used as primary transducer for temperature measurement where thermocouple directly
converts changes in temperature into an electrical signal.Thermocouple comes under class of active
transducer.

4. What is piezo-electric effect?

A piezo electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if
the dimensions of he crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force.

5. What are the materials used for piezoelectric transducers?

Some of the piezoelectric materials are
Rochelle salt
Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (ADP)
Quartz

6. What is an active transducer?

An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical parameter and does not
require external power source for its operation.
Eg.Tachogenerators, piezoelectric crystals

7. What is an analog and digital transducer?

Analog Transducers
These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducers
Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms an unique code. Unique
code is generated for each discrete value sensed.

8. List the advantages of Electrical Transducers

1. Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily processed (mainly amplified) and brought
to a level suitable for output device which may be an indicator or
recorder.
2. The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power
3. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for the purpose of measurement.
4. With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become extremely
small in size, requiring small space for their operation.
9. What are the factors to consider Selection of Transducer?
1.Operating range: The range of the transducer should be large enough to encompass
all the expected magnitudes of the measurand.
2.Sensitivity: The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured
input in order to yield meaningful data.
3.Electrical output characteristics: The electrical characteristics of transducer viz.
output impedance, frequency response, and the response time of the transducer output
signal should be compatible with the recording device and the rest of the measuring
system equipment.
4.Environmental conditions: The transducer should be immune to environmental
conditions such as change in temperature, humidity, vibration and shock,acceleration
and corrosive chemicals.
5.Errors: The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, or those errors
caused by environmental conditions of the measurement, should be small enough or
controllable enough that they allow meaningful data to be taken.
6.Accuracy: Accuracy of the transducer should be within the specified range so that
input in the specified range can be reliably measured.

10. What the characteristics of transducers?

Characteristics of Transducer
1. Accuracy
2. Ruggedness
3. Linearity
4. Repeatability
5. High output
6. High Stability and Reliability
7. Sensitivity
8. Dynamic Range
9. Size
10. Speed of Response.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Instrumentation Amplifier)

TABULATION:

Vo Vo
V1 V2 DVD= (V1- Gain
Sl.No Actual Observed
volts volts V2) A= Vout / Vd
volts volts
volts
1

Model Graph:

V
Exp No: 4
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
Date:

AIM:

To study the characteristics of an Instrumentation amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 Op-Amp(IC 741) 1
2 Resistor 1k ohm 6
3 DRB 1
4 Bread Board 1
5 Connecting Wires 1

THEORY:
In industrial and consumer applications, the physical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, light intensity, water flow etc is measured with the help of transducers. The
output of transducer has to be amplified using instrumentation so that it can drive the indicator or
display system.
The important features of an instrumentation amplifier are

1) High Accuracy
2) High CMRR
3) High Gain Stability with low temperature coefficient
4) Low dc offset
5) Low output impedance.

The circuit diagram shows a simplified differential instrumentation amplifier. A variable

resistor (DRB) is connected in one arm, which is assumed as a transducer in the experiment and it is
changed manually. The voltage follower circuit and a differential OP-AMP circuit are connected as
shown.
PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the RPS
3. Set Rg, V1 and V2 to particular values
4. Repeat Step 3 for different values of Rg, V1 and V2
5. Calculate the theoretical output voltage using the given formula and compare with
practical value.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristic of instrumentation amplifier was studied.

Pre Knowledge questions

1. An instrumentation system does not include

a) Transducer
b) Instrumentation amplifier
c) Automatic process controller
d) Tester

Answer: d
Explanation: Except tester the remaining blocks form the input, intermediate and output stage of

instrumentation system.

2. Strain gage is an example of which device?

a) Transducer
b) Voltage follower
c) Integrator
d) Differentiator

Answer: a
Explanation: Strain gage is a device when subjected to pressure or force undergoes change in its resistance.

3. What are the features of instrumentation amplifier?

a) Low noise
b) High gain accuracy
c) Low thermal and time drift
d) All of the mentioned

Answer: d
Explanation: Instrumentation amplifiers are intended for precise low level signal amplification because of the

features mentioned.

4. What instrument is used to amplify output signal of transducer

a) Peaking amplifier
b) Instrumentation amplifier
c) Differential amplifier
d) Bridge amplifier

Answer: b
Explanation: The major function of instrumentation amplifier is to amplify the low level output signal of the
transducer, so that it can drive the output stages.

5.General purpose op-amps are used in applications as

a) Instrumentation amplifier
b) Differential instrumentation amplifier
c) Inverting instrumentation amplifier
d) Non-inverting instrumentation amplifier

Answer: b
Explanation: When the requirement for the application are not too strict. The general purpose op-amp can be
employed in the differential mode. Such amplifiers are called as Differential instrumentation amplifier.

Viva-Voce Question

1. In an instrumentation amplifier using transducer bridge, which device measure the change in physical energy
a) Resistive transducer
b) Indicating meter
c) Capacitive transducer
d) Inductor circuit

Explanation: A resistive transducer is used to measure the change in same physical energy, which is connected to
one arm of the bridge.

2. How a differential instrumentation amplifier using transducer bridge can be used as a temperature controller?
a) Increase room temperature
b) Replaces calibrated meter with relay
c) Change the bridge resistance
d) Replace thermistor by light intensity meter

Answer: b
Explanation: A simple and inexpensive temperature controller can be constructed by replacing a meter with a relay
in the circuit. So, the output of the differential instrumentation amplifier drives a relay output of the differential
instrumentation amplifier drives a relay that controls the current on the heat generating circuit.

3. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?

In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical quantities is usually
done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified So that it can drive the indicator
or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier.
4.List the features of instrumentation amplifier:
High gain accuracy
High CMRR
High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
Low dc offset
Low output impedance
5.Applications of instrumentation amplifier.
• In Medical instrumentation, Navigation, Radar instrumentation e.t.c.
• In Audio applications involving low amplitude audio signals in noisy environments to improve the signal
to noise ratio.
• High-speed signal conditioning for video data acquisition and imaging.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

TABULATION:

Sl.No Analog I/P Digital O/P

4
 Exp No: 5a. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
Date:

AIM:

To design, setup and test the analog to digital converter using ADC.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 ADC Trainer Kit 1
2 Multimeter 1

THEORY:
Analog to Digital converters can be designed with or without the use of DAC as part
of their circuitry.
The commonly used types of ADC’s incorporating
DAC are:
a) Successive
Approximation type. b)
Counting or Ramp type.

The block diagram of a counting type ADC using a DAC is shown in the figure.
When the lock pulses are applied, the contents of the register/counter are modified by
the control circuit. The binary output of the counter/register is converted into an
analog voltage Vp by the DAC. The Vp is then compared with the analog input
voltage Vin .This process continues until Vp>=Vin. After which the contents of the
register /counter are not changed. Thus the output of the register /counter is the
required digital output.

PROCEDURE:
1. By making use of the R-2R ladder DAC circuit set up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply various input voltages in the range of 0 to 10V at the analog input terminal.
3. Apply clock pulses and observe the stable digital output at QD,QC,QB and QA
for each analog input voltage

RESULT:

Thus the analog to digital converter is studied and verified.

 Viva-voce Questions

1. A/D converter is used for __________

a) Converting analog to digital

b) Converting digital to analog
c) Converting digital to mixed signal mode
d) Converting analog to mixed signal mode
Answer: a
Explanation: In a digital data acquisition system, an A/D converter is used for the purpose
of converting analog signals to digital.

2. What is meant by ADC?

Analog to digital conversion is quantizing process where by an analog signal is converted
in to an equivalent binary word.

3. Output of A/D converter is _________

a) given to an analog display
b) given to a digital display
c) given to a CRO
d) given to an voltmeter

Answer: b
Explanation: Output from the analog to digital converter is given to a digital display device or
to a digital recorder for the purpose of displaying or recording.

4. Which of the following type output is provided by ADC?

a) Serial type
b) Parallel type
c) Both serial and parallel type
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: c
Explanation: ADC provides both serial and parallel type output according to application.

5. Which of the following method is employed for ADC?

a) Ladder network b) Successive approximation type
c) PWM type d) None of the mentioned

Answer: b
Explanation: In successive approximation method input value is constantly compared with a
reference value.
 Viva-voce Questions

6. Which of the following represents range of frequency measured by ADC?

a) Bandwidth
b) Threshold frequency
c) Peak frequency
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: a
Explanation: Bandwidth of ADC is the maximum range of frequency measured by ADC.

7. List out the direct type ADCs.

1. Flash (comparator) type converter
2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter
4. Successive approximation type converter

8. What are the Advantages of ADC?

• Very fast
• High resolution
• No precision external components needed
• Input signal is averaged
• Greater noise immunity than other ADC types
• High accuracy.

9. What are the Disadvantages of ADC?

• Lower resolution
• Expensive
• Large power consumption
• Slow due to oversampling

10. What are the applications of ADC?

1. These converters find more applications as an intermediate device to convert the signals from
analog to digital form, displays output on LCD through a microcontroller.
2. The objective of an A/D converter is to determine the output signal word corresponding to an
analog signal.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Digital to Analog Converter)

TABULATION:

Digital Input Va
HEX
Sl.No Output
B2 B1 B0 Value
volts

8
 Exp No: 5b. DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER
Date:

AIM:

To design, setup and test the analog to digital converter using DAC.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name of the Apparatus Qty

1 DAC Trainer Kit 1
2 Multimeter 1

FORMULA USED:
4 BIT WEIGHTED RESISTOR DAC:
Output voltage Vo = Io Rf (Rf =R)
Vo = Vo (Rf/R) (d12 +d22 +……. + dn2 )
R-2R LADDER NETWORK DAC:
Vo = Io Rf
Vo = (V/2) (Rf/R) (d12 +d22 +……..+ dn2 )

PROCEDURE:
1. The power supply is switched ON.

2. The jumpers J9 through J16 should be in s/w (right) position.

3. The switches SW1 through SW8 are placed appropriately to represent the desired input.

4. The output voltage can be observed by using a CRO/multimeter at the terminal pin 2.

RESULT:
Thus the digital to analog converter is studied and verified.
Viva Questions
1. A system that converts a digital signal into an analog signal is called
a) ADC
b) DAC
c) AAC
d) DDC
2. A measurement of maximum speed at which DACs circuitry can operate and still produce correct
3. output is called
A. Maximum sampling rate
B. Minimum sampling rate
C. Maximum summation rate
D. Minimum summation rate

4. A measurement of difference between largest and smallest signals DAC is referred as

A. Dynamic range
B. Static range
C. Determinant range
D. Stable range

5. Which of the following are used in DAC?

a) Ladder network
b) Successive approximation technique
c) Both Ladder and successive approximation technique
d) None of the mentioned.

Answer: a
Explanation: Ladder network of resistors are employed for the conversion of digital data to analog
data.
5. Digital to analog conversion can be done by

a. Weighted resistor method

b. R-2R ladder
c. Inverted R-2R-ladder method
d. All of the above

6.What is the major advantage of the R/2R ladder DAC, as compared to a binary resistor DAC?

▪ It only uses two different resistor values

▪ It has fewer parts for the same no. of inputs
▪ Its operation is much simpler to analyze
▪ The virtual ground is eliminated
 TABULATION:

Wattmeter Total Power Power Factor Total

Reading W= W1+W2 cosФ PowerW =√3
Load Supply (Watts) (Watts) =W /√3VLIL VLIL cosФ
S.No. Load Current Voltage (Watts)
(A) (V)
W1 W2
Ex. No:6 MEASUREMENT OF THREE PHASE POWER
AND POWER FACTOR
Date:
AIM:
To measure the three phase power using two wattmeter method and also find the power factor value.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Ammeter (0-10A)MI 1
2. Voltmeter (0- 600V)MI 1
3. Wattmeter 600V,10A,UPF 2
4. Three phase Resistive 1KW 1
load
5. Connecting wires - 10

FORMULA USED:
Total Power W = W1+W2 watts

Total Power W = √3 VLIL cosФ

Where,
W1&W2 Wattmeter Readings
VL & IL Load Voltage and Current
THEORY:

In 3Ф circuits whether the load is star connected or delta connected, total 3Ф power is
given by √3 VLILcosФ. The Ф is the angle between Vph and Iph. The power is measured
by using wattmeters. Wattmeter is a device which gives power reading, when
connected in 1Ф or 3Ф system, directly in watts. It consists of two coils 1. Current
coil, 2.voltage coil (or) pressure coil. The current coils of the two wattmeters are
connected in any two lines while the voltage coil of each wattmeter is connected between
its own current coil terminal and the line without a current coil. For example, the current
coils are inserted in the lines R and Y then the pressure coils are connected between R B
for one wattmeter and Y B for other wattmeter. The connections are same for star or
delta connected load. In two wattmeter method, the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter
reading gives the total power dissipated in the 3Ф circuit. If W1 & W2 are the two
wattmeter readings then the total power W= W1+W2 in watts
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The total voltage is given by adjust the autotransformer.
3. The meter readings are note down at no load conditions.
4. By applying the load gradually the corresponding meter readings are
noted down.
5. The above procedure is repeated for different input voltage by
adjust the autotransformer.
6. The load is released gradually and the supply is switched off.
RESULT:

Thus the three phase power using two wattmeter method and also find the power factor value were measured.
Viva questions:

1. What is meant by measurement?

The process of determining the present value is called as measurement.

2. What are the methods of measurements?

 a. Direct method. b. Indirect method.
3. What are the methods used for the measurement of three phase power in three phase circuits?

There are three methods which are used for the measurement of three phase power in three phase
circuits. The three methods are:

• Three Wattmeter Method

• Two Wattmeter Method
• Single Wattmeter Method

4. Name the methods used in wattmeter calibration.

The methods used in wattmeter calibration are:
•Comparing with standard wattmeter.
•Using voltmeter ammeter method.
•Using Potentiometer.

5. Name the errors caused in Dynamometer type wattmeter.

•Error due to pressure coil inductance
•Error due to pressure coil capacitance
•Error due to methods of connection
•Error due to stray magnetic fields
•Error due to eddy current.

6. What is Two wattmeter Method of Power Measurement?

Two Wattmeter Method of Power Measurement. Two Wattmeter Method can be employed to
measure the power in a 3 phase, three wire star or delta connected the balanced or unbalanced load.

7. What is meant by Three wattmeter method?

Three wattmeter method each wattmeter is connected so that the phase voltage is measured in
respect to the neutral and measures the current of the same phase.

8. Difference between single phase and three phase power.

The single-phase power supply has one distinct wave cycle whereas; three phase has three distinct
wave cycles. Single phase requires the single wire to connect the circuit whereas; 3-phase needs 3-wires.
The voltage of the single phase is 230V, whereas three phase voltage is 415V.

9. State the disadvantages of Dynamometer type wattmeter.

•Readings may be affected by stray magnetic fields.
•At low power factor it causes error.

10. What are the advantages of 3 phase system?

Advantages of 3 Phase Over Single Phase System. The three-phase system has three live
conductors which supply the 440V to the large consumers. While the single phase system has one live
conductor which is used for domestic purposes. The following are the main advantages of 3 Phase
system over Single Phase system.