CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Exp.No.: Characteristics of Linear Variable Displacement Transducers

Date:

AIM:

To measure the position using LVDT and to draw a graph showing induced voltage vs displacement.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
LVDT kit, Multimeter and Connecting wires.

THEORY:

LVDT is used to measure the position or displacement. It is used as process control systems. It is a
variable reluctance displacement transducers where in a moving core is used to vary the magnetic
flux coupling between two coils. It consists of a transformer with two secondary windings, one
primary winding and a movable core. With core in centre position, the voltage in the two
secondaries will be equal and the output will be zero.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. The core is initially brought to null position.
4. First turn the nut in clockwise direction to move core inwards i.e. left of null
position & take respective voltage readings on the voltmeter.
5. Now turn nut in anticlockwise direction to move the core towards right of null
point & again take respective voltage reading from voltmeter.
6. Plot the graph from the observations taken.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

S.No. Displacement Displacement Reading Analog o/p

Micrometer (mm)
(mm)

GRAPH:
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Handle all equipment’s with care.

2. Make connections according to the circuit diagram.
3. Take the readings carefully.
4. The connections should be tight.

RESULT:

Graph between voltage and displacement is plotted.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R1 R2

RX R3

MODEL GRAPH:

+ve

% Error

- ve
Exp.No.: Measurement of medium resistance using Wheatstone bridge
Date:

AIM:

To measure the given medium resistance using Wheatstone Bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Wheat stone Bridge kit, Unknown resistance, Multimeter and Connecting Wires.

THEORY:

The Wheatstone bridge is a fundamental electrical circuit used to measure unknown resistance with great
accuracy. It is based on the principle of balancing a bridge circuit, where the ratio of resistances in one
arm equals the ratio in the other arm, resulting in no current flowing through the galvanometer when the
bridge is balanced.

The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances arranged in a diamond shape. These resistances are:

1. R1 – Known resistance in one arm.

2. R2 – Known resistance in the second arm.
3. R3 – Variable or adjustable resistance in the third arm.
4. Rx – The unknown resistance (medium resistance) in the fourth arm.

A galvanometer (G) is connected between the two opposite nodes of the bridge, and a battery or voltage
source provides the required potential difference. The bridge is balanced when the ratio of the resistances
in the two arms is equal, and the galvanometer shows zero current.

PROCEDURE:

1. The resistance to be measured is connected between XX points in the bridge kit.

2. The P/Q ratio (multiplier) is initially kept at position ‘1’ and the deflection of the
galvanometer is observed by pressing both the battery and the galvanometer keys.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:
R1/R2 Ratio R3 Value Unknown Resistance
S.No Sample % Error
(Multiplier) ( Ω) Rx = R1/R2 * R3
(Ω)

CALCULATION:

Unknown Resistance, Rx = R1/R2 * R3 (Ω)

Where

R1, R2 = Ratio Arms

R3 = Variable
resistance
Rx = Unknown
resistance
% Error = (Sample value – Measured Value) / (Sample Value) * 100
3. The S arm (X 1000Ω) is adjusted and two positions are identified for which the deflection
of the galvanometer is on either side of the null point and kept at the lowest value of S.
Then the x100Ω, x10Ω, x1Ω knobs of S are adjusted to get null deflection. If necessary the
sensitivity knob may be controlled to get appreciable deflection. [If not possible P/Q ratio
is kept at suitable value ie, any one of ratios provided.]

4. The value of unknown resistance is read. (S value)

5. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated for some other P/Q ratio. The mean value is taken.

6. The experiment is repeated with other samples provided.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. There should not be any loose connections.

2. Meter readings should not be exceeded beyond their Ratings
3. Handle the Bridge very carefully

RESULT:

The value of unknown resistances was measured by using Wheatstone Bridge.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Exp.No.: Measurement of low resistance using Kelvin’s bridge.
Date:

AIM:

To measure the low value of unknown resistance and resistance of connecting leads using a Kelvin’s
double bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Portable Kelvin’s double bridge Kit, DC supply, Unknown Resistance and Connecting wires.

THEORY:
This bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides greatly increased accuracy in
measurement of low value resistance an understanding of the Kelvin’s bridge arrangement may be
obtained by a study of the difficulties that arise in a Wheatstone bridge and the contact resistances while
measuring low valued resistors. Two actual resistance units of correct ratio be connected between points
m and n in the Galvanometer be connected to the function of the resistors. This is the actual Kelvin
bridge arrangement.
The Kelvin double bridge incorporates the idea of a second set of ratio arms-hence the name double
bridge and the use of four terminals resistors for the low resistance arms. The first of ratio arms. P and
Q is used to connect the galvanometer to a point C at the appropriate potential between points M and N
to eliminate the effect of connecting lead of resistance R between the known resistance, R and the
standard resistance, S as shown.

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as shown in fig.
2. Across the terminals X meant for the unknown resistance, Connected whose shunt
resistance can be measured
3. The ratio (P/Q) is adjusted to a particular value.
4. For the ratio, balancing resistance is varied until Galvanometer shows null deflection.
5. The balance is similarly obtained for different ratios of (P/Q)
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Sl. Observed Calculated % Error Standard

No. Resistance in resistance in Deviation
Ohms Ohms

CALCULATION:

R= ( P / Q) × S

Where R= Unknown Resistance

P= Variable resistance
Q= Variable resistance
S= Standard resistance

Observed Resistance - Calculated resistance

% Error = ---------------------------------------------------------

Calculated resistance
 6. The resistance since it includes the resistance of the leads.
7. The lead resistance is measured by shorting the leads.
8. To obtain ammeter shunt resistance, the resistance of the leads is subtracted from the
total resistance.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. There should not be any loose connections.

2. Meter readings should not be exceeded beyond their Ratings.
3. Handle the Bridge very carefully.

RESULT:
The low value of unknown resistances was measured by using Kelvin’s double bridge.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

+ve

% Error

- ve
Exp.No.: Measurement of capacitance using Schering bridge
Date:

AIM:

To find the capacitance of the unknown capacitor and its dissipation factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Schering bridge kit, LCR meter, Dual trace CRO, Decade Capacitance Box or Unknown Capacitance,
Connecting wires.

THEORY:
The Schering Bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure the capacitance of a capacitor, particularly
when dealing with capacitors that may have small losses. It operates based on the principle of balancing
an AC bridge circuit similar to the Wheatstone Bridge, which is used for measuring resistances.
The Schering Bridge works by balancing the impedance in a bridge circuit, where the unknown
capacitor is placed in one of the arms of the bridge. The main objective is to measure the unknown
capacitance (C_x) in terms of known values.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the trainer kit and connect the unknown capacitance in the arm marked.
3. Observe the sine wave at the output of 1KHz oscillator and patch circuit using the
wiring diagram.
4. Select some value of R2.
5. Vary R1 from minimum position in a clockwise direction.
6. If the selection of R2 is correct balancing point {DC line} can be observed
on
the oscilloscope. Else vary R2 and repeat step 5.
7. Capacitor C1 is varied for fine adjustment from minimum position in the clock direction.
 8. The balance is also indicated by the minimum sound in the loud speaker. The
unknown capacitance and it’s dissipation factor is calculated.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

R1 R2 Unknown
S.No Sample (Ω) (Ω) Capacitance % Error

Cx = (R1/R2) * C3

CALCULATION:

Unknown capacitance,

Cx = ( R1/R2 )* C3,

Where, C3 = Known Capacitance, Microfarads

% Error = (Sample value – Measured Value)/ (Sample Value) * 100

PRECAUTIONS:
1. There should not be any loose connections.
2. Handle the Bridge very carefully.

RESULT:
The value of unknown capacitance is found experimentally by using the Schering Bridge.
Exp.No.: Measurement of three phase power and power factor
Date:

AIM: