UNIT 2

THE LOCOMOTOR
SYSTEM

HATS
Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
1. Define common terms related to the skeletal system
2. Describe the development, growth and structure of
bones
3. List the bones in the human skeleton
4. Describe the classification of joints and the movements
of the synovial joint
5. Describe the characteristics, types of muscle tissue and
functions of the muscular system.
Definitions of Common Terms Related to the Skeletal
System
The skeletal system consists of bones and other structures
that make up the joints of the skeleton. It also has different
types of tissue, namely: bone tissue, cartilage, and fibrous
connective tissue. These tissues form the ligaments that
connect bone to bone.
Let’s look at the definition of common terms used when
discussing the skeletal system.
The skeletal system consists of bones and other
structures that make up the joints of the skeleton. It
also has different types of tissue, namely: bone tissue,
cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue. These tissues
form the ligaments that connect bone to bone.
Let’s look at the definition of common terms used
when discussing the skeletal system.
b).Styloid Process
This is a sharp downward projection of bone which gives attachment to
muscles.
c). Fossa
This is a depression or hollow.
d).Foramen
This is a hole or opening in any structure of the body.
e). Bony Sinus
This is a hollow cavity within a bone.
f). Meatus
This is a tube-shaped cavity within a bone.
g). Articulation
This is a joint between two or more bones.
h).Suture
This is the name given to an immovable joint.
k)Condyle
This is a smooth rounded projection found at the end of a bone
which is part of a joint.

Next, we will look at, the development, growth and structure of

bones.
 Development and Growth of Bones
Parts of the skeleton are formed during the first few weeks
after conception. By the end of the eighth week after
conception, the skeletal pattern is formed in cartilage and
connective tissue membranes and ossification begins.
Bone development continues throughout adulthood. Even
after adult stature is attained, bone development continues
with the repair of fractures and remodeling to meet changing
lifestyles.

What is the meaning of osteogenesis?

The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often
used synonymously to indicate the process of
bone formation.
 Cells involved in bone development
and growth.
There are three types of cells involved in the
development, growth and remodeling of bones. These
are:

•Osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells.

•Osteocytes, which are mature bone cells.
•Osteoclasts, which break down and reabsorb bone.
Bone Ossification
There are two types of bone ossification (osteogenesis):
intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
Intramembranous Ossification
Intramembranous ossification involves the replacement of
sheet-like connective tissue membranes within bony tissue.
Bones formed in this manner are called intramembranous
bones.
They include certain flat bones of the skull and some of the
irregular bones. The bones are first formed as connective
tissue membranes.
Osteoblasts migrate to the membranes and deposit bony
matrix around them. When the osteoblasts are surrounded
by matrix they are called osteocytes.
Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral ossification involves the replacement of hyaline
cartilage with bony tissue. Most of the bones of the skeleton
are formed in this manner.
These bones are called endochondral bones. In this process,
bones are first formed as hyaline cartilage models.
During the third month after conception, the perichondrium
that surrounds the hyaline cartilage "models", becomes
infiltrated with blood vessels and osteoblasts and changes into
a periosteum.
The osteoblasts form a collar of compact bone around the
diaphysis.
At the same time, the cartilage in the centre of the
diaphysis begins to disintegrate. Osteoblasts penetrate
the disintegrating cartilage and replace it with spongy
bone.
This forms a primary ossification centre. Ossification
continues outward, from this centre to the ends of the
bones.
After the spongy bone is formed in the diaphysis,
osteoclasts break down the newly formed bone to open
up the medullary cavity.
The cartilage in the epiphyses continues to grow and the
developing bone increases in length.
Later, usually after birth, secondary ossification centres form
in the epiphyses.
Ossification in the epiphyses is similar to that in the diaphysis
except that the spongy bone is retained instead of being
broken down to form a medullary cavity.
When secondary ossification is complete, the hyaline
cartilage is totally replaced by bone except in two areas.
A region of hyaline cartilage remains over the
surface of the epiphysis as the articular
cartilage and another area of cartilage
remains between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
This is the epiphyseal plate or growth region
Bone Growth
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by a process that
is similar to endochondral ossification.
The cartilage in the region of the epiphyseal plate next to the
epiphysis continues to grow by mitosis.
The chondrocytes, in the region next to the diaphysis, age and
degenerate. Osteoblasts move in and ossify the matrix to form
bone.
This process continues throughout childhood and into the
adolescent years until the cartilage growth slows down and
finally stops.
When cartilage growth ceases, usually in the early
twenties, the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies
so that only a thin epiphyseal line remains and the
bones can no longer grow in length.
Bone growth takes place under the influence of the
growth hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland and sex hormones secreted by the ovaries
and testes.
Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood,
they can continue to increase in thickness or diameter
throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle
activity or weight. The increase in diameter is called
appositional growth.
Osteoblasts in the periosteum form compact bone around the
external bone surface. At the same time, osteoclasts in the
endosteum break down bone in the internal bone surface,
around the medullary cavity. These two processes together
increase the diameter of the bone and, at the same time,
keep the bone from becoming excessively heavy and bulky.
Types of Bone Tissue
There are two types of bone tissue: compact tissue
and spongy tissue. The names imply that the two
types of tissue differ in density, or how tightly they are
packed together.
An equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts
maintains bone tissue. Let’s look at the two types of
bone tissue in further detail.
Compact Bone Tissue
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or
Haversian systems. The osteon consists of a central
canal called the osteonic (Haversian) canal, which is
surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix.
Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells
(osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small
channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the
osteonic (Haversian) canal to provide passageways
through the hard matrix.
In compact bone, the Haversian systems are packed
tightly together to form what appears to be a solid
mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that
are parallel to the long axis of the bone.
These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating
canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than
compact bone. Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae)
and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow.
The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a
central Haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may
appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard
manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength
similar to braces that are used to support a building. The
trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and can
realign if the direction of stress changes.
Classification of Bones
The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and
shapes. The four principal types of bones are:
•Long bones
•Short bones
•Flat bones
•Irregular bones
a. Long Bones
Bones that are longer than they are wide, are called
long bones. They consist of a long shaft with two bulky
ends or extremities. They are primarily compact bone
but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the
ends or extremities. Long bones include bones of the
thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
b. Short Bones
Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical
and horizontal dimensions that are approximately
equal. They consist primarily of spongy bone,
which is covered by a thin layer of compact bone.
Short bones include the bones of the wrist and
ankle.
c. Flat Bones
Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. Most
of the bones of the cranium are flat bones.
d. Irregular Bones
Bones that are not in any of the above three categories
are classified as irregular bones. They are primarily
spongy bone, that is, they are covered with a thin layer
of compact bone. The vertebrae and some of the bones
in the skull are irregular bones.
Each bone has surface markings and characteristics
that make it unique. There are holes, depressions,
smooth facets, lines, projections and other markings.

These usually represent passageways for vessels and

nerves, points of articulation with other bones or
points of attachment for tendons and ligaments
 Functions of Bones
•Provide the framework of the body.
•Give attachment to muscles and tendons.
•Permit movement of the body as a whole and of parts of the
body, by forming joints that are moved by muscles.
•Form the boundaries of the cranial, thoracic and pelvic
cavities, protecting the organs contained within.
•Contain red bone marrow in which blood cells develop in a
process known as haematopoiesis.
•Provide a reservoir of minerals, especially calcium
phosphate.
 The Skeleton
The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. It forms the
cavities and fossae (long narrow depressions) that protect
some structures, the joints and gives attachment to muscles.
Humans are vertebrates, that is, animals that have a vertebral
column or backbone.
They rely on an internal frame that is centred on a prominent
spine. The human skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage,
ligaments and tendons and accounts for about 20 percent of
the body’s weight. The living bones in our bodies use oxygen
and give off waste products in metabolism. They contain
active tissues that utilise nutrients.
The skeleton is divided in two parts:
•The axial skeleton
•The appendicular skeleton

These are illustrated in the Figure 20 below. The green

coloured parts highlight the axial skeleton while the
grey coloured parts highlight the appendicular skeleton.
 The Axial Skeleton (80 bones)
The axial skeleton (axis of the body) has a total of 80 bones.
These bones are found in:
1. The skull
2. The vertebral column
3. The thoracic cage (Ribs and the sternum)

Let’s start by looking at the bones of the skull.

1. The Skull
The skull consists of 22 bones and 7 associated bones which
develop separately but fuse together as they mature. The
only movable bone in the skull is the mandible or lower jaw.

The skull is composed of two main parts:

a)The cranium, which contains the brain
b)Bones of the face

Let’s consider each in detail, starting with the cranium.

a) The Cranium
The bones of the cranium are shown in Figure 21 and
include the following:

• The frontal bone

•The parietal bones
•The temporal bones
•The occipital bone
•The sphenoid bone
•The ethmoid bone
Figure 21: The Cranium
Frontal bone
This is the bone of the forehead. It forms part of the orbital
cavities (eye sockets) and the prominent ridges above the
eyes, the supraorbital margins. Just above the supraorbital
margins, located within the bone, are two air-filled cavities or
sinuses lined with ciliated mucous membrane, which have
openings into the nasal cavity.
The coronal suture joins the frontal and parietal bones and
other fibrous joints are formed with the sphenoid, zygomatic,
lacrimal, nasal and ethmoid bones. The frontal bone
originates in two parts joined in the midline by the frontal
suture.
Parietal bones
These bones form the sides and roof of the skull. They
articulate with each other at the sagittal suture, with
the frontal bone at the coronal suture, the occipital
bone at the lambdoid suture, and the temporal bones
at the squamous sutures. The inner surface is concave
and is grooved by the brain and blood vessels
Temporal bones
These bones lie on each side of the head and form
immovable joints with the parietal, occipital, sphenoid
and zygomatic bones. Each part of the temporal bone
has several important features.
The squamous, is the thin fan-shaped part that
articulates with the parietal bone. The zygomatic
process is the part that articulates with the zygomatic
bone to form the zygomatic arch (cheekbone). The
mastoid, is the part that contains the mastoid process,
a thickened region behind the ear
It contains a large number of very small air-filled sinuses
which communicate with the middle ear and are lined
with squamous epithelium.
The petrous portion forms part of the base of the skull and
contains the organs of hearing (the spiral organ) and
balance.
The temporal bone articulates with the mandible at the
temporomandibular joint, the only movable joint of the
skull.
Occipital bone
This bone forms the back of the head and part of the base of
the skull. It has immovable joints with the parietal, temporal
and sphenoid bones. Its inner surface is deeply concave and
the concavity is occupied by the occipital lobes of the
cerebrum and by the cerebellum.
The occiput has two articular condyles that form hinge joints
with the first bone of the vertebral column, the atlas. It
contains an opening known as the foramen magnum
(meaning large hole) through which the spinal cord passes
into the cranial cavity.
Sphenoid bone
This bone occupies the middle portion of the base of the skull
and it articulates with the occipital, temporal, parietal and
frontal bones.
On the superior surface in the middle of the bone, is a little
saddle-shaped depression, known as the hypophyseal fossa
(sella turcica) where the pituitary gland rests. The body of the
bone contains some fairly large air-filled sinuses lined by
ciliated mucous membrane with openings into the nasal
cavity.
Ethmoid bone
The ethmoid bone occupies the anterior part of the base of
the skull and helps to form the orbital cavity, the nasal
septum and the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
On each side are two projections into the nasal cavity, the
upper and middle conchae or turbinated processes. It is a
very delicate bone containing many air-filled sinuses lined
with ciliated epithelium and with openings into the nasal
cavity.
Figure 22: Bones of the base of the skull
b) Bones of the Face
The face skeleton is formed by 13 bones. This is in addition to the
frontal bone, which we described earlier.
There are two L-shaped bones. The horizontal parts unite to form the
posterior part of the hard palate and the lateral walls of the nasal
cavities. At their superior extremities they form part of the orbital
cavities.
The following bones are found in the face:
•Inferior conchae or turbinated bones
•Mandible
•Hyoid bone
•Sinuses
•Fontanelles
•Inferior Conchae or turbinated bones
This is a scroll-shaped bone which forms the lateral wall of the
nasal cavity.
•Mandible
The mandible is the only movable bone of the skull. It
originates as two bones which unite in the midline. It has a
curved body, with the alveolar ridge containing the lower teeth
and the ramus which projects upwards. Superiorly, the ramus
divides into two: the condyloid process which articulates with
the temporal bone; and the coronoid process that gives
attachment to muscles and ligaments.
•Hyoid Bone
This is a horse-shoe-shaped bone lying in the soft tissues of the
neck just above the larynx and below the mandible. It is
isolated and does not articulate with any other bone. It gives
attachment to the base of the tongue.
•Sinuses
Sinuses are present in the sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary and
frontal bones. Sinuses contain air and give resonance to the
voice. They also lighten the bones of the face and cranium
making it easier for the head to balance on top of the vertebral
column.
•Fontanelles
These are areas in the infant skull where three or more bones
meet.
The largest are the anterior fontanelle which closes 12 to 18
months after birth and the posterior fontanelle which closes
when the child is about 2 to 3 months. Fontanelles and sutures
play a major role in moulding during childbirth.
Functions of the Skull
The various parts of the skull have the following specific and distinct functions:
•The cranium protects the delicate tissues of the brain.
•The bony eye sockets provide the eyes with some protection against injury and give
attachment to the muscles that move the eyes.
•The temporal bone protects the delicate structures of the ear.
•Some bones of the face and the base of the skull give resonance to the voice
because they have air-filled cavities called sinuses. The sinuses have tiny openings
into the nasal cavity.
•The bones of the face form the walls of the posterior part of the nasal cavities. They
keep the air passage open, facilitating breathing.
•The maxilla and the mandible provide alveolar ridges in which the teeth are
embedded.
•The mandible is the only movable bone of the skull and chewing food is the result
of raising and lowering the mandible by contracting and relaxing some muscles of the
2. The Vertebral Column
The vertebral column is made up of the following sections:
•The Cervical vertebrae (7)
•The Thoracic vertebrae (12)
•The Lumbar vertebrae (5)
•The Sacrum (1)
•The Coccyx (1)
Characteristics of a Typical Vertebra
A typical vertebra has a body and a neutral arch.
•The Body
This is situated anteriorly and the size varies with the site. It is largest towards the
lumbar and smallest at the cervical area.
•The Neural Arch
It encloses a large vertebral foramen. The ring has two
pedicles that project backwards from the body and two
laminae. The laminae and pedicles meet at the spinous
process.
Cervical Vertebrae
The cervical vertebrae refer to the vertebrae of the neck.
They are modified in such a way that they allow the
passage of blood vessels and nerves to the head.
•Atlas
This is the first cervical vertebra and consists of a ring with two
short transverse processes. The odontoid process (Dens) is
located anteriorly in the vertebral foramen and is held in place
by the transverse ligament.
•Axis
This is the second cervical vertebra with a small body and an
upward projection called the odontoid process that articulates
with the atlas. It allows the head to turn from side to side.
Thoracic Vertebrae
The bodies and transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae have
facets for articulation with the ribs. The spinous processes are long and
point downwards as shown in Figure 28 below.
Characteristics of Thoracic Vertebrae
They have a head which articulates posteriorly and the tubercle
which articulates with the transverse process of adjacent
thoracic vertebrae.
The sterna end is attached to the sternum by cartilage. They
have a superior border that is smooth and round, and an
inferior border with marked grooves occupied by intercostal
blood vessels and nerves.
The first rib does not move during respiration. In between the
ribs are the intercostal muscles.
Lumbar Vertebrae
The lumbar vertebrae have the largest bodies as they need to
withstand the weight of the upper part of the body.
Their spinous processes point backwards, but are generally shorter
than the thoracic vertebrae.
Sacrum
The sacrum has five rudimentary fused vertebrae that form a wedge-
shaped bone, as shown in Figure 29 below. The upper part articulates
with the 5th lumbar vertebra.
On either side, it forms the sacro-iliac joint and inferiorly articulates
with the coccyx. The anterior edge of the base has a protrusion into the
pelvic cavity called sacro-promontory.
Coccyx
It is a triangular shaped bone made out of four fused bones. The broad
base articulates with the sacrum.
In addition to the five main parts of a vertebrae column are the
intervertebral discs and foramina.
Intervertebral Discs
The intervertebral discs separate bodies. They are thinnest at the
cervical and become thicker towards the lumbar region.
Intervertebral Foramina
Throughout the length of the vertebral column is the intervertebral
foramen present on each side, through which the spinal nerves, blood
vessels and lymph vessels pass.
Curves of the Vertebral Column
The vertebral has two primary and two secondary curves:
•The primary curvature develops in utero when the foetus lies
curved up.
•The secondary curve (cervical) develops when the child can
hold the head up.
•The secondary lumbar curve develops when the child can
stand up.
Ligaments of the Vertebral Column
The vertebral column has the following 6 ligaments:
•The transverse ligament holds the odontoid process in position.
•The anterior longitudinal ligament lies in front of the vertebral bodies
and extends the whole length of the column.
•The posterior longitudinal ligament lies inside the vertebral canal and
extends the whole length of the vertebral column.
•The ligamentum flava connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae.
•The ligamentum nuchae join the bifid spinous processes of the
cervical vertebrae.
•The supra-spinous ligaments connect the spinous processes from the
thoracic to the sacrum.
Functions of the Vertebral Column
What are the functions of the vertebral column
The following are the main functions of the vertebral column:
•Provides a strong bony protection for the spinal cord lying within it.
•The vertebrae have inter-vertebral foramina through which spinal
nerves, blood vessels and lymph vessels pass.
•Allows for a certain amount of movement
•It supports the skull
•The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers thereby protecting the
brain.
•Forms the axis of the trunk thus giving attachment to the
appendicular skeleton.
3.The Thoracic Cage
The Thoracic Cage is made up of the following bones as shown
in Figure 30 below:
•The Sternum (1)
•The Ribs (24)
•The Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 The Appendicular Skeleton (126 Bones)
The appendicular skeleton consists of the following:

1. The shoulder girdle with the upper limbs

2. The pelvic girdle with the lower limbs.
1. Shoulder Girdle and Upper Limbs (Upper Extremities)
The following bones are part of the upper shoulder
girdle and upper limbs:
•Clavicle
•Scapula
•Humerus
•Ulna and Radius
•Carpal or Wrist Bones
•Metacarpal Bones
•Phalanges
Clavicle
The clavicle is a long bone which has a double curve. It articulates with the
manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint and forms the
acromioclavicular joint with the acromion process of the scapula. The clavicle
provides the only bony link between the upper limb and the axial skeleton.
Scapula
The scapula is a flat triangular-shaped bone, lying on the
posterior chest wall superficial to the ribs and separated from
them by muscles. At the lateral angle there is a shallow articular
surface, the glenoid cavity which together with the head of the
humerus, forms the shoulder joint.
On the posterior surface there is a spinous process that projects
beyond the lateral angle of the bone that overhangs the
shoulder joint, called the acromion process.
It articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint. The
coracoid process, a projection from the upper border of the
bone, gives attachment to muscles that move the shoulder joint.
Humerus
The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. The head
articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula, forming the
shoulder joint.
Distal to the head are two roughened projections of bone, the
greater and lesser tubercles, and between them is a deep
groove, the bicipital groove or intertubercular sulcus, occupied
by one of the tendons of the biceps muscle.
The distal end of the bone presents two surfaces that articulate
with the radius and ulna to form the elbow joint.
Ulna and Radius
The ulna and radius are the two bones of the forearm. The
ulna is longer and medial to the radius when the arm is in the
anatomical position, that is, with the palm of the hand facing
forward.
The two bones lie parallel to one another. They articulate with
the humerus at the elbow joint, the carpal bones at the wrist
joint and with each other at the proximal and distal radioulnar
joints.
Carpal or Wrist Bones
There are eight carpal bones arranged in two rows of four. From the
outside in, they are:
•Proximal row: scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform.
•Distal row: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate.
These bones fit closely together and are held in position by ligaments
that allow a certain amount of movement between them.
The bones of the proximal row are associated with the wrist joint and
those of the distal row form joints with the metacarpal bones.
Tendons of muscles lying in the forearm cross the wrist and are held
close to the bones by strong fibrous bands, called retinacula.
Metacarpal Bones (Bones of the Hand)
These five bones form the palm of the hand. They are numbered from
the thumb side inwards. The proximal ends articulate with the carpal
bones and the distal ends with the phalanges.
Phalanges (Finger Bones)
There are 14 phalanges, three in each finger and two in the thumb.
They articulate with the metacarpal bones and with each other.

Next, we will discuss the bones of the pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
1.Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs (Lower
Extremity)
a)The Pelvic Girdle

The bones of the pelvic girdle are:

•2 innominate bones
•1 sacrum.

Let’s consider each type in turn in the following section.

•Innominate Bones (Hip Bones)
Each hip bone consists of three fused bones, the ilium, ischium
and pubis. On its outer surface there is a deep depression, the
acetabulum, which forms the hip joint with the almost-
spherical head of femur.
The ilium is the upper flattened part of the bone and it
presents the iliac crest, the anterior point of which is called the
anterior superior iliac spine.
The pubis is the anterior part of the bone and it articulates
with the pubis of the other hip bone at a cartilaginous joint,
the symphysis pubis. The ischium is the inferior and posterior
part. The union of the three parts takes place in the
acetabulum.
The Pelvis
The pelvis is formed by the two innominate bones that
articulate anteriorly at the symphysis pubis and posteriorly
with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints, which are synovial
joints.
It is divided into two parts by the brim of the pelvis, consisting
of the promontory of the sacrum and the iliopectineal lines of
the innominate bones.
The greater or false pelvis is above the brim and the lesser or
true pelvis is below.
 Bones of The Lower Limbs
The bones of the lower limb are:
•1 femur
•1 patella
•1 tibia
•1 fibula
•7 tarsal bones
•5 metatarsal bones
•14 phalanges
Femur (Thigh bone)
The femur is the longest and strongest bone of the body. The head is
almost spherical and fits into the acetabulum of the hip bone to form
the hip joint.
In the centre of the head, is a small depression for the attachment of
the ligament of the head of the femur. This extends from the
acetabulum to the femur and contains blood vessels that supply blood
to an area of the head of the bone.
The neck extends outwards and slightly downwards from the head to
the shaft and most of it is within the capsule of the hip joint. The
posterior surface of the lower third forms a flat triangular area called
the popliteal surface. The distal extremity has two articular condyles
which, together with the tibia and patella, form the knee joint.
Tibia (Shin bone)
The tibia is the medial of the two bones of the lower leg. The
proximal extremity is broad and flat and presents two condoles
for articulation with the femur at the knee joint.
The head of the fibula articulates with the inferior aspect of the
lateral condyle, forming the proximal tibiofibular joint.
The distal extremity of the tibia forms the ankle joint. The
medial malleolus is a downward projection of bone medial to
the ankle joint.
Fibula
The fibula is the long slender lateral bone in the leg. The head
or upper extremity articulates with the lateral condyle of the
tibia forming the proximal tibiofibular joint and the lower
extremity articulates with the tibia then projects beyond it to
form the lateral malleolus.
Patella (Knee cap)
This is a roughly triangular-shaped sesamoid bone associated
with the knee joint. Its posterior surface articulates with the
patellar surface of the femur in the knee joint and its anterior
surface is in the patellar tendon, that is, the tendon of the
quadriceps femoris muscle.
Tarsal (Ankle bones)
There are seven tarsal bones that form the posterior part of the
foot. They are:
•1 talus
•3 cuneiform
•1 calcaneus
•1 cuboid
•1 navicular
The talus articulates with the tibia and fibula at the ankle joint.
The calcaneus forms the heel of the foot. The other bones
articulate with each other and with the metatarsal bones.
These are five bones, numbered starting from the inner foot
outwards, which form the greater part of the dorsum of the
foot.
At their proximal ends they articulate with the tarsal bones and
at their distal ends, with the phalanges. The enlarged distal
head of the first metatarsal bone forms the 'ball' of the foot.

Phalanges of the Toes

There are 14 phalanges arranged in a similar manner to those
in the fingers, that is, two in the great toe (the halux) and three
in each of the other toes.
The Joints
What is a joint?
A joint is the site at which two or more bones articulate or
come together. Some joints have no movement (fibrous), some
have only slight movement (cartilaginous) and some are freely
movable (synovial).
Bones are too rigid to bend without being damaged.
Fortunately, flexible connective tissues form joints. Joints that
hold bones, permit some degree of movement in most cases.
A joint, also called an articulation or arthrosis, is a point of
contact between two bones, between bones and cartilage or
between bone and teeth.
When we say one bone articulates with another bone, we
mean that the bone forms a joint.
One appreciates the beauty and importance of joints when you
have to wear a cast (POP) over your knee joint which makes
walking difficult or a splint on one of your fingers, limiting your
ability to manipulate small objects.
Classification of Joints
Tortora & Bryan (2006) classified joints according
to:

1. Structure criteria
2. Anatomical characteristics and function
3. Type of movement they permit.
1.Structural Criteria
The structural classification of joints is based on two criteria.
The first being the presence or absence of a space between the
articulating bones (synovial cavity) and second being the type
of connective tissue that binds the bones together.
The structural classification of joints divides them into the
following:
•Fibrous or Fixed Joints
•Cartilaginous or Slightly Movable Joints
•Synovial Joints (Freely Movable Joints)
•Fibrous or Fixed Joints
These are joints with no synovial cavity and the bones
are held together by fibrous connective tissue that is rich
in collagen fibres. These joints don’t make any
movement. Examples are:

•Joints between bones of the skull (sutures).

•Joints between the teeth and the maxilla and mandible.
•Cartilaginous or Slightly Movable Joints
These are joints without a synovial cavity. The bones are held
together by cartilage (fibrocartilage) between the ends of the
bones that form the joint, which allows for very slight
movement where the pad of cartilage is compressed.
Examples include:

•Joints of the symphysis pubis.

•Joints between the vertebral bodies.
•Synovial Joints (Freely Movable Joints)
These are joints that have a synovial cavity and fluid. They are
held together by dense irregular connective tissue of an
articular capsule and often by accessory ligaments.
Examples of synovial joints include the following:
•Ball and socket joint
•Hinge joint
•Grinding joint
•Pivot joint
•Condyloid joint
•Saddle joint
2.Anatomical Characteristics and Function Criteria
The anatomical characteristic and function classification
of joints relates to the degree of movement that the
joint permits. They include the following:

•Synarthrosis: joints which do not permit any movement

at all.
•Amphiarthrosis: joints which permits slight movement.
•Diarthrosis: joints which have a variety of shapes and
permit several different types of movement.
3. Type of Movement they Permit (Freely Movable Joints)
These are joints which are classified according to the range of
movement possible at the joint or the shape of the articulating parts of
the bones involved (also called synovial joints).

They include the following:

•Ball and socket joint
•Hinge joint
•Gliding joint
•Pivot joint
•Condyloid and saddle joint.
•Ball and Socket Joint
This joint is formed by the head or ball of one bone which
articulates with a socket of another.
The shape of the bone allows for a wide range of movement
including the following:
•Flexion
•Extension
•Adduction
•Abduction
•Rotation
•Circumduction.
•Hinge Joints
This is a type of synovial joint which only allows for
flexion and extension movements. Examples of hinge
joints include the following:
•Elbow
•Knee
•Ankle
•Atlas and the occipital bone
•Interphalangeal joints of the fingers and toes.
•Gliding Joints
These are joints whose articular surfaces glide over each
other.
Examples of grinding joints are:

•Sternoclavicular joints
•Acromioclavicular joints
•Joints between the carpal bones
•Joints between the tarsal bones
•Pivot Joints
These are joints whose movement is round one axis (rotation).
They include:
-Proximal and distal radio ulnar joints.
-Joint between the atlas and the odontoid process of the axis.
•Condyloid and Saddle Joints
These are joints whose movements take place round two axes,
permitting the following movements:
•Flexion,
•Extension
•Abduction
•Adduction
Examples of condyloid and saddle joints are:

•The wrist joint

•The temporomandibular joint (see figure 50 below)
•The metacarpophalangeal joint
•The metatarsophalangeal joints
Movements
The following movements are possible at the synovial joint:
•Flexion: that is bending, usually forward but occasionally backward, for example,
the knee joint.
•Extension: straightening or bending backward.
•Abduction: movement away from the midline of the body.
•Adduction: movement towards the midline of the body.
•Circumduction: the combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.
•Rotation: movement round the long axis of a bone.
•Pronation: turning the palm of the hand to face down.
•Supination: turning the palm of the hand to face up.
•Inversion: turning the sole of the foot inward.
•Eversion: turning the sole of the foot outwards.
Characteristics of a Synovial Joint
All synovial joints have certain characteristics in common. These
include the following:
a. Articular or Hyaline Cartilage
Parts of the bones which are always in contact are covered with hyaline
cartilage. It provides a smooth articular surface and is strong enough to
absorb compression forces and bear the weight of the body. It has no
blood supply and receives its nourishment from synovial fluid.
b. Capsule or Capsular Ligament
These are structures that surround joints and enclose them with a
sleeve of fibrous tissue which holds the bones together. It is sufficiently
loose enough to allow freedom of movement but strong enough to
protect it from injury.
c. Synovial Membrane
This is a membrane that is composed of epithelial cells and is
found lining the following structures:
•The capsule.
•Bones within the joint not covered by articular cartilage.
•Intracapsular structures that do not bear weight.
d. Synovial Fluid
This is a thick sticky fluid of egg-white consistency, secreted by
synovial membranes into the synovial cavity.
e. Synovial Cavity
This is the space between the articulating surfaces of the synovial
joint into which the synovial fluid circulates.
 Function of Synovial Fluid
The following are the functions of synovial fluid:
•It provides nutrients and oxygen as well as removes carbon dioxide
and metabolic wastes from chondrocytes within the articular cartilage
and other structures within the synovial cavity.
•It contains phagocytic cells, which remove microbes and cellular
debris that result from normal wear and tear in the joint.
•It reduces friction by lubricating the joint.
•It absorbs shock as the joint makes movements.
•It maintains joint stability.
•It prevents the ends of the bones from being separated, in the same
manner as water between two glass surfaces.
Other Structures Related to the Synovial Joint
a. Intracapsular Structures
These are structures found within the capsule but outside the synovial
membrane, which assist in maintenance of stability. For example, fat
pads and menisci in the knee joint. When these structures do not bear
weight they are covered by synovial membrane.

b. Extracapsular Structures
These structures include:
•Ligaments that blend with the capsule provide additional stability at
most joints.
•Muscles or their tendons also provide stability and stretch across the
joints they move.
This brings us to the end of the discussion
on joints. We have discussed their
structure, anatomical characteristics and
function and the type of movements they
permit. In the next section, we shall
discuss the muscular system.