THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM
ALLEN CLAIRE C. AGUILAR, PTRP
 OBJECTIVES
01 Describe the six main functions of the skeletal system.

02 Describe the structure and functions of each part of a long bone

03 Explain why bone tissue is classified as a connective tissue

04 Describe the cellular composition of bone tissue and the functions of each type of cell

05 Compare the structural and functional differences between compact and spongy bone tissue

06 Describe the blood and nerve supply of bone.

07 Describe the steps of intramembranous and endochondral ossification.

08 Explain how bone grows in length and thickness.

09 Describe several common types of fractures

10 Explain the sequence of events involved in fracture repair.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
-entire framework of bones and their cartilages, along with ligaments and tendons

OSTEOLOGY: study of bone structure and the treatment of bone disorders

FUNCTIONS
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Assistance in movement
4. Mineral homeostasis
5. Blood cell production “hematopoiesis”
6. Triglyceride storage
Structure of a Long Bone
Parts:
1. Diaphysis
-main portion of the bone
-long, cylindrical
2. Epiphyses
-proximal and distal ends of bone
3. Metaphyses
-contains the epiphyseal growth plate
-becomes epiphyseal line at 14 to 24
years old
4. Articular Cartilage
-covers the epiphyses
-reduces friction and absorbs shock
Structure of a Long Bone

Parts:
5. Periosteum
-surrounds the bone surface
-protects the bone, assist in fracture
repair and helps nourish bone tissue
6. Medullary Cavity
-hollow, cylindrical space which
contains yellow bone marrow and
numerous blood vessels
7. Endosteum
-lines the medullary cavity
-contains single layer of bone-forming
cells
Types of Cells in Bone Tissue
Types of cells in Bone Tissue
Osteoprogenitor cells
Osteocytes
-the only bone cells to undergo cell division
-mature bone cells
-resulting cells develop into osteoblasts
-main cells in the bone tissue
-found in the endosteum

Osteoblasts Osteoclasts
-bone building cells -resorption
-synthesize and secret collagen fiber -regulates blood calcium level
-initiate calcification
Types of bone according to
size and distribution of spaces
Compact Bone
-strongest form of bone tissue with few spaces
-found beneath the periosteum of all bones
Parts:
Osteons
-structural unit of a bone
-also known as haversian systems
-consist of concentric lamellae
-communicates through gap junctions
Concentric Lamellae
-circular plates of mineralized extracellular matrix of increasing diameter, surrounding a small
network of blood vessels and nerves
Lacunae
-small spaces between concentric lamellae
-contains osteocytes
Canaliculi
-small spaces with extracellular fluid
Perforating Canal
-where the blood vessels and nerves penetrate the compact bone
Circumferential Lamellae
-has inner and outer part connected by perforating fibers “sharpey’s fiber”
Compact Bone
Spongy Bone
-also known as trabecular or cancellous bone tissue
-does not contain osteons
-located in the interior of the bone
-covered with compact bone
-has Trabeculae
-irregular patterns of lamellae
-has spaces filled with red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow
Spongy Bone
 Ossification: process by which bone forms
Ossification of Bones also known as osteogenesis

INTRAMEMBRANOUS ENDOCHONDRAL
OSSIFICATION OSSIFICATION

-how flat bones are developed -how long bones are developed
(skull, mandible, medial collar bone) (humerus, femur, tibia and fibula)

STAGES: STAGES:
1. Development of the ossification center 1. Development of the cartilage model
2. Calcification 2. Growth of the cartilage model
3. Formation of trabeculae 3. Development of the primary ossification center
4. Development of periosteum 4. Development of the medullary (marrow) cavity
5. Development of the secondary ossification
centers
6. Formation of the articular cartilage and the
epiphyseal (growth) plate
 Epiphyseal Plate: layer of hyaline cartilage in the
Growth in Length metaphysis of a growing bone
Fracture and Repair of Bone Fracture: any break in the continuity of the bone
Stages of Bone Healing

Reactive Phase
-early inflammatory phase
-broken blood vessels
-presence of fracture hematoma
-Phagocytes and osteoclasts remove dead
and damaged tissues
-6 to 8 hours after the injury
-may last up to several weeks
Stages of Bone Healing

Reparative Phase:
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation

-formation of fibrocartilaginous callus

-formation of soft bony callus
-blood vessels grow into fracture
hematoma
-fribroblasts produce collagen fibers
-takes about 3 weeks
Stages of Bone Healing

Reparative Phase:
Bony Callus Formation

-in well vascularized area, osteoprogenitor

cells develop into osteoblasts producing
spongy bone trabeculae
-fibrocartilage is converted into spongy bone
“bony (hard) callus
-lasts about 3 to 4 months
Stages of Bone Healing

Bone Remodeling Phase

-final phase of fracture repair
-compact bone replaces spongy bone
-fracture may be undetectable in x-ray
Common types of fracture:

OPEN FRACTURE COMMINUTED FRACTURE

GREENSTICK FRACTURE IMPACTED FRACTURE

Factors that affect bone growth: MINERALS
Manganese
-activates enzymes involved in synthesis of bone extracellular matrix

Calcium and phosphorus

-make bone extracellular matrix hard

Fluoride
-helps strengthen bone extracellular matrix

Magnesium
-helps form bone extracellular matrix
Factors that affect bone growth: VITAMINS
Vitamin A
-needed for the activity of osteoblasts during remodeling of bone
-toxic in high doses
Deficiency: stunts bone growth

Vitamin C
-needed for synthesis of collagen
Deficiency: slows down bone growth and delays repair of broken bone

Vitamin D
-produced by kidneys
-increases absorption of calcium
Deficiency: faulty calcification and slows down bone growth

Vitamin K & B12

-needed for synthesis of bone proteins
Deficiency: abnormal protein production in bone extracellular matrix
decreases bone density
Factors that affect bone growth: EXERCISE

Weight bearing activities stimulate osteoblasts

Help build thicker and strong bone

Retard loss of bone mass that occurs as people age

THE AXIAL
SKELETON
ALLEN CLAIRE C. AGUILAR, PTRP
 OBJECTIVES
01 Describe how the skeleton is organized into axial and appendicular divisions.

02 Classify bones based on their shape or location.

03 Describe the principal surface markings on bones and the functions of each.

04 Name the cranial and facial bones and indicate whether they are paired or single

05 Identify the location and surface features of the cranial bones

06 Identify the location and surface features of the facial bones

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones

Divided into:
AXIAL SKELETON
-80 bones

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
-126 bones
TYPES OF BONES
1. LONG BONES
-length>width
-has shaft and variable number of epiphyses
-consist mostly of compact bone in the
diaphysis and spongy bone in the epiphyses
Example: Femur, Tibia and fibula, humerus,
ulna and radius, phalanges

2. SHORT BONES
-cube-shaped and nearly equal length and
width
-consist of spongy bone tissue with compact
bone at the surface
Example: carpal bones tarsal bones
TYPES OF BONES
3. FLAT BONES
-thin and composed of two nearly parallel
plates of compact bone tissue enclosing a
layer of spongy bone
-for protection and muscle attachment
Example: Cranial bones, sternum and ribs,
scapula

4. IRREGULAR BONES
-bones with complex shape
-amount of spongy and compact bone vary
Example: vertebrae, hip bone, calcaneus
TYPES OF BONES
5. SESAMOID BONE
-develops in certain tendon where there is
considerable friction, tension and physical
stress
Example: Patella, Pisiform

6. SUTURAL BONES
-small bones located in sutures (joints)
Example: between cranial bones
SURFACE MARKINGS

Depressions and openings – allows the passage of

soft tissues such as blood vessels, nerves, ligaments
and tendons or form joints

Processes – projections or outgrowths that either help

form joints and serve as attachment points for
connective tissue
Depression and Openings
Fissure- narrow slit between adjacent parts of bones through which blood vessels/nerves pass
Example: superior orbital fissure

Foramen- opening through which blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments pass

Example: Optic foramen

Fossa- shallow depression

Example: Coronoid fossa of humerus

Sulcus- furrow along bone surface that accommodates blood vessel, nerve, or tendon
Example: Intertubecular sulcus of humerus

Meatus- tube-like opening

Example: External auditory meatus of temporal bone
Processes

FORM JOINTS…
Condyle- Large, round protuberance with a smooth articular
surface at end of bone
Example: lateral condyle of femur
Facet- Smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface.
Example: Superior articular facet of vertebra
Head- Usually rounded articular projection supported on neck
(constricted portion) of bone.
Example: Head of femur
Processes
FORM ATTACHMENT POINTS…
Crest- prominent ridge or elongated projection.
Example: Iliac crest of hip bone
Epicondyle- typically roughened projection above condyle
Example: medial epicondyle of femur
Line (linea)- long, narrow ridge or border (less prominent than crest)
Example: Linea aspera of femur
Spinous process- sharp, slender projection.
Example: Spinous process of vertebra
Trochanter- very large projection
Example: Greater trochanter of femur
Tubercle- variably sized rounded projection.
Example: Greater tubercle of humerus
Tuberosity- variably sized projection that has a rough, bumpy surface
Example: ischial tuberosity of hip bone
SKULL
-bony framework of the head
-has 22 bones

Divided into:
Cranial bones (8) Facial bones (14)
-forms the cranial cavity -forms the face
-encloses and protects the brain 2 Nasal bone
2 Parietal 2 Inferior nasal conchae
2 Temporal 2 Lacrimal Bone
1 Frontal 2 Palatine bone
1 Occipital 2 Zygomatic Bone
1 Ethmoid 2 Maxilla
1 Sphenoid (keystone) 1 Vomer
1 Mandible
 Assignment
(1whole yellow paper)
Identify the parts, location and surface features of each
of the cranial and facial bones.

Enumerate the principal foramina of the skull and

identify the location and structures passing through
THE AXIAL
SKELETON
ALLEN CLAIRE C. AGUILAR, PTRP
 OBJECTIVES
01 Describe the relationship of the hyoid bone to the skull

02 Describe the structural and functional features of the bones in various regions of the vertebral column.

03 Identify the regions and normal curves of the vertebral column.

04 Identify the location and surface features of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae

05 Identify the location and surface features of the sacral and coccygeal vertebrae

06 Identify the location and surface features of the sternum.

07 Identify the location and surface features of the ribs

FONTANELS

-areas where unossified mesenchyme

develops into the dense connective
tissues of the skull.

Functions:
1. serve as spacers for the growth of
neighboring skull bones
2. provide some flexibility to the fetal
skull
3. allowing the skull to change shape as
it passes through the birth canal
 ANTERIOR FONTANEL
FONTANELS -largest fontanel
-midline among two parietal bone and
the frontal bone
-diamond-shaped
Closes 18 to 24 months after birth

POSTERIOR FONTANEL
-between 2 parietal bones and the
occipital bone
Closes @ 2 months after birth

ANTEROLATERAL FONTANEL
-located laterally among the frontal,
parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones
Closes @ 3 months after birth

POSTEROLATERAL FONTANEL
-located laterally among the parietal,
occipital, and temporal bones
Begin to close 1 to 2 months after birth
Complete closure @ 12months
HYOID BONE

-only bone in the body with no articulation with any other bone

Location: anterior neck between mandible and larynx

Function:
1. supports the tongue
2. serves as an attachment site for tongue, neck and pharynx
muscles.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
-also known as spine, back bone or spinal column
-2/5 of total height
Male: 71cm (28in)
Female: 61cm (24in)
Functions:
1. enclosing and protecting the spinal cord
2. supports the head
3. serves as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle, and
muscles of the back and upper limbs

Total number of vertebrae during early development: 33

Total number of vertebrae in adult: 26
7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacrum fused to 1 (sacral)
4 coccyx fused to 1 (coccygeal)
Normal Curves

-anterior/posterior view: straight

-lateral view: 4 slight normal curves

Cervical and Lumbar – convex (bulging out)

Thoracic and Sacral – concave (cupping in)

Functions:
1. increase its strength
2. help maintain balance in the upright position
3. absorb shocks during walking
4. help protect the vertebrae from fracture
Normal Curves

FETUS- single anteriorly concave curve

Primary curves: thoracic and sacral

Secondary curves: cervical and lumbar

Cervical curve develops @ 3rd month

Lumbar curve develops @ 10 to 12 months

All curves are fully developed as 10 years old

Abnormal Curves:
Kyphosis
Lordosis
Scoliosis
Intervertebral Discs

-found between the bodies of adjacent

vertebrae from the second cervical vertebra
to the sacrum
-25% of the height of the vertebral column

Parts:
Annulus Fibrosus - outer fibrous ring
consisting of fibrocartilage

Nucleus Pulposus- inner soft, pulpy, highly

elastic substance
Parts of Typical Vertebra
Parts of Typical Vertebra
VERTEBRAL BODY
-thick, disc-shaped anterior portion
-weight-bearing part of a vertebra

VERTEBRAL ARCH
-Two short, thick processes, the pedicles, project posteriorly
from the vertebral body and then unite with the flat laminae

PROCESSES (7)
Transverse process- where lamina and pedicle join
Spinous process- projects posteriorly from the junction of
the laminae
Superior articular process- articulate with the two inferior
articular processes of the vertebra immediately above them
Inferior articular process - articulate with the two superior
articular processes of the vertebra immediately below them
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE C3 – C6
SIZE: Small

FORAMINA: One vertebral and two transverse

SPINOUS PROCESS: Slender, often bifid (C2-C6)

TRANSVERSE PROCESS: Small

ARTICULAR FACET FOR RIBS: Absent

DIRECTION OF ARTICULAR FACETS

Superior: Posterosuperior

Inferior: Anteroinferior

SIZE OF INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS:

Thick relative to size of vertebral bodies

ATYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE C1,C2,C7
C1
-aka atlas
-no vertebral body
-no spinous process
-has anterior arch

C2
-aka axis
-has odontoid process (dens)
-short transverse process
-large bifid spinous process

C7
-aka vertebra prominens
-spinous process: long and non bifid
-transverse process: small
TYPICAL THORACIC VERTEBRAE T2 – T9
SIZE: Larger

FORAMINA: One vertebral

SPINOUS PROCESS: Long, fairly thick

TRANSVERSE PROCESS: Fairly large

ARTICULAR FACET FOR RIBS: Present

DIRECTION OF ARTICULAR FACETS

Superior: Posterolateral

Inferior: Anteromedial

SIZE OF INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS:

Thin relative to size of vertebral bodies

ATYPICAL THORACIC VERTEBRAE T1
T10-T12
T1
-horizontal spinous process
-has costal facets

T10
-has tubercles and costal facets on lateral aspect
of vertebral body

T11-T12
-has tubercles
-has single facet at vertebral body
TYPICAL LUMBAR VERTEBRAE L1 – L4
SIZE: Largest

FORAMINA: One vertebral

SPINOUS PROCESS: Short, blunt

TRANSVERSE PROCESS: Large and blunt

ARTICULAR FACET FOR RIBS: Absent

DIRECTION OF ARTICULAR FACETS

Superior: Medial

Inferior: Lateral

SIZE OF INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS: Thickest

ATYPICAL LUMBAR VERTEBRAE: L5 (bigger and stout transverse process)

SACRUM AND COCCYX
SACRUM

-triangular bone formed by the union of 5

sacral vertebrae

-begins to fuse between 16 to 18 years old,

completed by age 30.

Female: shorter, wider and more curved

COCCYX

-triangular bone formed by the union of 4

coccygeal vertebrae

-begins to fuse between 20 to 30 years old

Female: points posteriorly

Male: points anteriorly
STERNUM
STERNUM

-Aka breastbone
-narrow bone located in the center of the anterior thoracic wall
-15cm (6 in) in length

Parts:
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid Process – complete ossification at 40 years old
RIBS
RIBS
-12 pairs of ribs
-structural support to the sides of the thoracic cavity
-first seven pair ribs: direct anterior attachment to the sternum (true ribs)
sternum + ribs = sternocostal joints
-last five pair of ribs: indirect or no attachment to the sternum (false ribs)
Slipped Disc
Abnormal curves of the vertebral column
THE APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
ALLEN CLAIRE C. AGUILAR, PTRP
 OBJECTIVES
01 Identify the bones of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle, their functions, and their principal markings

02 Describe the location and surface features of the clavicle AND SCAPULA

03 Identify the bones of the upper limb and their principal markings.

04 Identify the location and surface landmarks of the humerus, radius and ulna

05 Identify the location and surface landmarks of the bones of the hand
PECTORAL GIRDLE

-also known as shoulder girdle

-consists of clavicle and scapula

Clavicle + Sternum = sternoclavicular joint

Scapula + Clavicle = acromioclavicular joint
Clavicle
-also known as collar bone
-S-shaped bone
-medial half: convex
lateral half: concave

Parts:
Sternal End- round medial end that articulates
with manubrium sternum to form sternoclavicular
joint

Acromial End- broad and flat lateral end that

articulates with the scapula to form
acromioclavicular joint

Conoid Tubercle- where conoid ligament is

attached
Scapula
-aka shoulder blade
-large, triangular, flat bone
-vertebral level: T2- T7
 OBJECTIVES
01

02

03

04

05

06 -

07
UPPER LIMB
Each upper limb has 30 bones

1- humerus in the arm

2- ulna and radius in the forearm

8- carpals in the carpus (wrist)

5- metacarpals in the metacarpus (palm)

14- phalanges (bones of the digits) in the hand

Humerus
Humerus
Parts:
Head- round proximal end
Anatomical Neck- oblique groove distal to the head
Greater Tubercle- lateral projection of anatomical neck
Lesser Tubercle- projects anteriorly
Intertubercular Sulcus- between 2 tubercles
Surgical Neck- constriction in the humerus just distal to
the tubercles -aka arm bone
Body/shaft- cylindrical at its proximal end, but it -longest and largest bone of the upper limb
Proximal: Humerus + scapula = shoulder joint
gradually becomes triangular until it is flattened and Distal: Humerus + radius and ulna = elbow joint
broad at its distal end
Deltoid tuberosity- V shaped area at the middle portion
of the shaft
Humerus
Parts:
Radial Groove- at posterior surface of humerus
Capitulum- a rounded knob on the lateral aspect of the bone that articulates with the head of the radius
Radial Fossa- anterior depression above the capitulum that articulates with the head of the radius when
forearm is flexed
Trochlea- spool-shaped surface that articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna
Coronoid Fossa- anterior depression that receives the coronoid process of the ulna when the forearm is
flexed.
Olecranon Fossa- large posterior depression that receives the olecranon of the ulna when the forearm
is extended
Medial and Lateral Epicondyle- rough projections on either side of the distal end of the humerus
Humerus
Radius & Ulna
Ulna
-located on the medial aspect of the forearm
-longer than the radius
Parts:
Olecranon- proximal end
Coronoid process- anterior projection which articulates
with the trochlea of the humerus
Trochlear notch- large curved area between the
olecranon and coronoid process that forms part of the
elbow joint
Radial notch- a depression lateral and inferior to the
trochlear notch
Ulnar Tuberosity- inferior to the coronoid process
Styloid process- posterior side of the ulna’s distal end
Radius
-smaller bone of the forearm and is located on the lateral
aspect of the forearm
-narrow at its proximal end and widens at its distal end

Parts:
Head- disc shaped proximal end of the radius that
articulates the capitulum
Neck- inferior to the head
Radial Tuberosity- roughened area inferior to the neck
on the anteromedial side
Styloid process- distal end of the radius
Ulnar notch- narrow concavity at the distal end of radius
Carpals
Carpals
The carpals in the proximal row, from lateral to
medial, are the:
Scaphoid- boatlike (mc fractured)
Lunate- moon-shaped (mc dislocated)
Triquetrum- three-cornered
Pisiform- pea-shaped

The proximal row of carpals articulates with the

distal ends of the ulna and radius to form the
wrist joint. The carpals in the distal row from
lateral to medial, are the:
Trapezium- four-sided figure with no two sides
-aka carpus or wrist
Trapezoid- four-sided figure with two sides
-consists of 8 small bones joined together by ligaments
Capitate- head-shaped (largest)
-articulation between carpals = intercarpal joints
Hamate- hook-shaped
-arranged in two transverse rows of four bones each
Metacarpals

-aka metacarpus or palm

-intermediate region of the hand having 5 bones
Parts:
Base
Shaft
Distal head (knuckles)
Phalanges

- Bones of the digit that make up the distal part of the hand
- 14 phalanges in each hand
- Single bone is termed as phalanx
- Articulate with each other at interphalangeal joint
Parts: Proximal phalanx, middle phalanx and distal phalanx
THE APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
ALLEN CLAIRE C. AGUILAR, PTRP
 OBJECTIVES
01 Identify the bones of the pelvic girdle and their principal markings

02 Identify the locations and surface features of the three components of the hip bone

03 Identify the location and surface features of the femur and patella

04 Identify the location and surface features of the tibia and fibula

05 Identify the location and surface features of the bone of the foot
PELVIC GIRDLE
-also known as hip girdle
-consists of two hip bones, aka coxal, pelvic
bones or os coxa
-two hip bones unite anteriorly at a joint called
the pubic symphysis and posteriorly with the
sacrum at sacroiliac joint

Complete ring: (Pelvis)

Hip bones
Pubic symphysis
Sacrum
Coccyx
Function:
Supports the vertebral column and
pelvic and lower abdominal organs
Connects the bones of the lower
limbs to the axial skeleton
ILIUM

-largest of the 3 hip bones

Parts:
Iliac crest- superior border
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine
Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine
Posterior Superior Iliac Spine
Posterior Inferior Iliac Spine
Iliac Fossa- medial surface
Iliac Tuberosity- posterior to iliac fossa
ISCHIUM

-inferior, posterior portion of the hip bone

Parts:
Ischial Spine
Ischial Tuberosity
PUBIS

-anterior and inferior part of hip bone

Parts:
Superior Ramus
Inferior Ramus
Body:
Pubic crest- anterior superior border of body
Pubic tubercle- lateral projection of pubic crest
Pectineal Line
Pubic Arch- inferior to pubic symphysis
FEMALE MALE
Lower Limb (Extremity)

-consists of 30 bones in each limb

1 femur
1 patella
2 tibia and fibula
7 tarsals
5 metatarsals
14 phalanges
Femur
-aka thigh bone
-longest, heaviest and strongest bone in the body
-Proximal: Femur + acetabulum = hip joint
Distal: Femur + Tibia and Patella= knee joint

Parts:
Head- rounded end
Fovea Capitis- small central depression of head
Neck- constricted end of the head
Greater and Lesser Trochanter- lateral projections
Linea Aspera- at posterior femur
Medial and Lateral Condyle- expanded distal end of femur
Medial and Lateral Epicondyle- superior to the condyles
Intercondylar Fossa- depression between condyles
Patellar Surface- between condyles
Adductor Tubercle- superior to medial epicondyle
Patella
-aka knee cap
-sesamoid bone
-small, triangular bone located anterior to the knee joint

Parts:
Base
Apex
Articular Facets
Tibia
-aka shin bone
-larger, medial, weight bearing bone of the leg
-Proximal: Tibia + Femur and Patella = Knee joint
Distal: Tibia + Talus = Ankle joint

Parts:
Lateral and Medial Condyle- proximal end of tibia
Intercondylar Eminence- separates the two condyles
Tibial Tuberosity- at the anterior surface of tibia
Medial Malleolus- medial distal end of tibia
Fibular Notch- distal end that articulates with fibula
Fibula

-parallel and lateral to tibia

Parts:
Head- proximal end
Lateral Malleolus- distal end
Tarsals

-7 tarsal bones

Talus- ankle bone

Calcaneus- heel bone
-strongest and largest tarsal bone
Navicular- little boat
3 Cuneiforms- wedge-shaped
Cuboid- cube-shaped
Metatarsals

-5 metatarsals
-numbered 1 to 5 from medial to lateral

Proximal: 1st 2nd 3rd Cuneiform and Cuboid + Metatarsals = Metatarsophalangeal Joint
Distal: Metatarsals + Phalanges = Metatarsophalangeal Joint

Parts: Base, Shaft, Head

Phalanges

-distal component of the foot

-each phalanx consists of base, shaft and head
 OBJECTIVES
01

02

03

04

05

06 -

07
 “Just believe in yourself. Even if you don’t,
pretend that you do and, at some point, you will.”