What is Biomedical

Instrumentation?

Bioinstrumentation or Biomedical Instrumentation is an application of biomedical engineering, which focuses on the devices and
mechanics used to measure, evaluate, and treat biological systems. It focuses on the use of multiple sensors to monitor
physiological characteristics of a human or animal.
Biomedical Instrumentation
• Subdivision of biomedical engineering.
• Emphasizes the measurement of all the variables in the body for the use of
monitoring, diagnosis and therapy.
• These measurements and therapies involves electronics and computers, the ideal
background is in electrical and computer engineering.
• Eg: ECG Machine
Basic Medical Instrumentation
system

Ref: K S Kandpur, “Hand book of Biomedical instrumentation”, Tata McGraw Hill

Components of Biomedical Instrumentation
System
• Measurand: The measurand is the physical quantity, and the instrumentation
systems measure it. Human body acts as the source for measurand, and it
generates bio-signals.
• Example: body surface or blood pressure in the heart
• Sensor / Transducer: The transducer converts one form of energy to another
form usually electrical energy.
• For example, the piezoelectric signal which converts mechanical vibrations into the
electrical signal.
• The transducer produces a usable output depending on the measurand.
• The sensor is used to sense the signal from the source. interface the signal with the human.
• Signal Conditioner: Signal conditioning circuits are used to convert the
output from the transducer into an electrical value. Generally, signal
conditioning process includes amplification, filtering, analogue to digital and
Digital to analogue conversions. Signal conditioning improves the sensitivity of
instruments.
• Display: It is used to provide a visual representation of the measured
parameter or quantity. Example: Chart recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope
(CRO).
• Alarm System: with upper and lower adjustable thresholds to indicate when the
measurand goes beyond preset limits.
• Data Storage and Data Transmission: Data storage is used to store the data
and can be used for future reference. Data transmission is used in Telemetric
systems, where data can be transmitted from one location to another remotely.
• Calibration: Necessary at regular intervals during their
operation.
• Calibration signal is usually applied to the sensor input or as early in the
signal conditioning chain as possible.
• External Stimuli: In many measurements, some form of
stimulus or energy is given to the patient and the effect it has on
the patient is measured. Eg: Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)
• Control System/Feedback Loop: Automatic control of the
transducer, stimulus or signal conditioning part of the system.
• Nowadays Microprocessor will control the system, that requires minimal
user intervention, calibration and set up procedure.
Types of Biomedical Instrumentation
Systems
• Direct /Indirect: Measure a physiologic parameter directly /measures
a parameter related to the physiologic parameter of interest
• Invasive /Noninvasive: Recording of the action potential in nerve
fibers using an implantable electrode system /An imaging system
measuring blood flow dynamics in an artery.
• Contact /Remote: A strain gauge sensor attached to a muscle /An
MRI or ultrasound imaging system can measure internal deformations
in the muscle.
• Sense/ Actuate: Sensor detects / actuator delivers.
• Dynamic /Static: Measure temporal averages of physiologic
parameters/ Real-time instruments have faster response.
 Problems encountered in biomedical
measurements
Basic problems can be expected in attempting measurements from any living system.
1. Inaccessibility of variable to measurement
Physical size of the transducer, place a suitable transducer in a position( Eg. BRAIN), medical operation required to place
a transducer.
2. Variability of data
Majority of physiological variables are nondeterministic, means varies with respect to time.so these must be
represented by some statistical or probability distribution.
3. Lack of knowledge of interrelationship
Better understanding of physiological relationship would also permit more effective use of indirect measurements as
substitutes for inaccessible measure.
4. Interaction among physiological systems
Large number of feedback loops involved in the major physiological systems, a severe degree of interaction exists both
within a given system and among the major systems.

Refer: L. Cromwell, F. J. Weibell and L. A. Pfeiffer, Biomedical Instrumentation Measurements, Pearson education, Delhi, 1990.
• 5. Effect of the Transducer on the Measurement
• Almost any kind of measurement is affected in some way by the presence of the
measuring transducer, this is greatly compounded in the measurement of living systems.
• Physical presence of the transducer changes the reading significantly.(Eg: Large Blood
flow transducer, penetration of the cell by a transducer for to measure the
electrochemical potentials can easily kill or damage the cell.)
• Interaction- Presence of a transducer in one system can affect responses in other
systems.
• Psychological effect of the measurement can also affect (Eg. Elevated BP in presence of
physician due to Fear response on the part of the patient, involving the autonomic
nervous system.)
• Make the effect of the presence of the measuring device is minimal- care must be taken
to prevent the measuring system from “loading” the source of the measured variable.
(Limited amount of energy available in the body for many physiological variables)
• 6. Artifacts
• Artifact- any component of a signal that is extraneous to the variable
represented by the signal.
• Random noise generated within the measuring instrument, electrical
interference (including 60-Hz pickup), cross-lalk, and all other unwanted
variations in the signal are considered artifacts.
• Major source of artifacts -movement of the subject.
• Application of anesthesia to reduce movement may itself cause unwanted changes in the
system.
• 7. Energy Limitations
• Many physiological measurement techniques require that a certain amount of
energy be applied to the living system in order to obtain a measurement.
• Eg. Resistance measurements require the flow of electric current through the
tissues or blood being measured.
• Some transducers generate a small amount of heat due to the current flow.
• So, care must continually be taken to avoid the possibility of energy
concentrations that might damage cells or affect the measurements.
• 8. Safety Considerations
• Extra caution must be taken in the design of any measurement system to
protect the patient.
• Measurement should not cause undue pain trauma, or discomfort, unless it
becomes necessary to endure these conditions in order to save the patient's
life.
Basic Transducer Principles
• A major function of medical instrumentation is the measurement of physiological
variables.
• A variable is any quantity whose value changes with time.
• Physiological variable- A variable associated with the physiological processes of the
body.
• Eg. Body temperature, the electrical activity of the heart (ECG), arterial blood pressure, and
respiratory airflow.
• Physiological variables occur in many forms
• as ionic potentials and currents, mechanical movements, hydraulic pressures and flows, temperature
variations, chemical reactions, and many more.
• Transducer is required to convert each variable into an electrical signal which can be
amplified or otherwise processed and then converted into some form of display.
• Electrodes, which convert ionic potentials into electrical signals
• Transducer- Device that performs the conversion of one form of
variable into another.
• Transducer converts Physiological variables into electrical signals.
• So, transducer is a component which has a nonelectrical variable as its input
and an electrical signal as its output.
• Two quite different principles are Active transducers & passive
transducers.
• Active transducer- Based on energy conversion principle.
• Passive transducers- involves control of an excitation voltage or modulation of
a carrier signal.
TRANSDUCERS FOR BIOMEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
• Many variables of great interest in biomedical Table 2.2. BASIC TRANSDUCERS
applications, such as pressure and fluid or gas Physical Variable Type of Transducer
flow, and many other variables of interest can Force (or pressure) Piezoelectric Unbonded strain gage
be measured, by first converting each of
them into one of the variables for which Variable resistance Variable capacitance
basic transducers are available. Displacement Variable inductance Linear variable
differential transducer Mercury strain gage

Surface strain Strain gage

Velocity Magnetic induction
Temperature Thermocouple Thermistor
Light Photovoltaic Photoresistive
Magnetic field Hall effect
In medical applications the basic physiological variables is first transformed into one of
the physical variables listed. Examples would be measurement of blood pressure using
strain gages and blood flow by magnetic induction.
• 1. Force Transducers
• A design element frequently used for the conversion of physical variables is the force-
summing member.
• Force-summing member is a leaf spring.
• When the spring is bent downward, it exerts an upward-directed force that is
proportional to the displacement of the end of the spring.
• If a force is applied to the end of the spring in a downward direction, the spring bends
until its upward-directed force equals the downward-directed applied force, or,
expressed differently, until the vector sum of both forces equals zero.
• From this it derives its name “force-summing member”.
• Force-summing member can be used to convert a force into a variable for which
transducers are more readily available. The bending of the spring, for example, results
in a surface strain that can be measured by means of bonded strain gages.
 • Long, soft spring shown in the upper
photograph, the transducer assumes the
characteristics of an isotonic displacement
multiple conversion of transducer.
variables takes place:
force to displacement,
• Short, stiff spring shown in the lower
displacement to light
intensity, and light
photograph, it becomes an isometric force
intensity to transducer.
resistance.
• Force and displacement transducers are closely related.
• Isotonic and isometric are used to describe the characteristics of
these transducers.
• Ideally a force transducer would be isometric; that is, it would not yield
(change its dimensions) when a force is applied.
• A displacement transducer would be isotonic and offer zero or a constant
resistance to an applied displacement.
Transducers for Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
Pressure Transducers
• Pressure transducers are closely related to force transducers.
• Pressure transducers utilizing flat diaphragms normally have bonded or
semiconductor strain gages attached directly to the diaphragms.
• Even smaller dimensions are possible if the diaphragm is made directly from a thin silicon wafer
with the strain gages diffused into its surface.
• If absolute pressure is to be measured, there must be a vacuum on one side of the
diaphragm.
• It is much more common to measure the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure
by exposing one side of the diaphragm to the atmosphere.
• In differential pressure transducers the two pressures are applied to opposite sides
of the diaphragm.
• Bourdon tube transducers are usually used for high pressure ranges
• Flow Transducers
• The flow rate of fluids or gases is a very elusive variable and many different
methods have been developed to measure it.
• Transducers with Digital Output
• Biomedical instrumentation systems are utilizing digital methods for the
processing of data, which require that any data entered into the system be in
digital rather than in analog form.
• It is often desirable to have a transducer whose output signal originates in
digital form.
Module 1.2
• Sources of bioelectric potentials – resting and action potentials.
 Sources of Bioelectric Potentials
• In carrying out their various functions, certain systems of the body
generate their own monitoring signals, which convey useful information
about the functions they represent.
• These signals are the bioelectric potentials associated with nerve
conduction, brain activity, heartbeat, muscle activity, and so on.
• Bioelectric potentials are ionic voltages produced as a result of the
electrochemical activity of certain special types of cells.
• Transducers- Converts ionic potentials into electrical voltages, these
natural monitoring signals can be measured and results displayed in a
meaningful way to aid the physician in his diagnosis and treatment of
various diseases.
Refer: L. Cromwell, F. J. Weibell and L. A. Pfeiffer, Biomedical Instrumentation Measurements, Pearson education, Delhi, 1990.
• 1786- Luigi Galvani found electricity in the muscle of a frog’s leg (Idea of
electricity being generated in the body)
• 1903- Dutch physician Willem Eindhoven introduced the string galvanometer
RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIALS
• Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve and muscle cells,
are encased in a semi permeable membrane that permits some
substances to pass through the membrane while others are kept out.
• Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids.
• conductive solutions containing charged atoms known as ions: prin­cipal ions
are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl-).
• Membrane of excitable cells readily permits entry of potassium and
chloride ions but effectively blocks the entry of sodium ions.
• various ions seek a balance between the inside of the cell and the
outside, both accord­ing to concentration and electric charge
Resting potential (RP)
• Inability of the Na+ to penetrate the membrane results in two conditions.
1. concentration of Na+ ions inside the cell becomes much lower than in the intercellular fluid outside.
• Na+ are positive, this would tend to make the outside of the cell more positive than the inside
2.An attempt to balance the electric charge, additional K+ ions, which are also positive, enter the cell,
causing a higher concentration of K+ on the inside than on the outside.
• Because of the concentration imbalance of K+ ions, Charge balance cannot be achieved.
• Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane, negative on the
inside and positive on the outside.
• This membrane potential is called the resting potential of the cell and is maintained until
some kind of disturbance upsets the equilibrium.
• A cell in the resting state is said to be polarized.
• Resting potential of a cell is Negative : Membrane potential is generally made from
inside the cell with respect to the body fluids.
• Measuring membrane poten­tials in various cells ranging from -60 to -100 mV.

Simplified form the cross section of a cell

with its resting potential.
Action Potential (AP)
• When a section of the cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by
some form of externally applied energy, the membrane changes its characteristics
and begins to allow some of the Na+ ions to enter.
• This movement of Na+ ions into the cell constitutes an ionic cur­rent flow that further reduces
the barrier of the membrane to Na+ ions.
• The net result is an avalanche effect in which Na+ ions literally rush into the cell to try to reach a balance with
the ions outside.
• At the same time K+ ions, which were in higher concentration inside the cell during the
resting state, try to leave the cell but are unable to move as rapidly as the Na+ ions.
• As a result, cell has a slightly positive potential on the in­side due to the
imbalance of potassium ions.
• This potential is known as the action potential and is approximately +20 mV.
• A cell that has been excited and that displays an action potential is said to be
“depolarized”.
• Depolariza­tion : Process of changing from the resting state to the action
potential.
Repolarization
• Once the rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has stopped (a new state of
equilibrium is reached), the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are no
longer present and the membrane reverts back to its original, selectively permeable
condition, wherein the passage of sodium ions from the outside to the inside of the cell is
again blocked.
• By an active process, called a sodium pump, the sodium ions are quickly transported to the
outside of the cell, and the cell again becomes polarized and assumes its resting potential.
• This process is called repolarization
• Sodium pump
• Sodium is withdrawn against both charge and concentration gradients supported by some form of high-
energy phosphate compound.
• Rate of pumping is directly proportional to the sodium concentration in the cell.
• Operation is linked with the influx of potassium into the cell, as if a cyclic process involving an exchange
of sodium for potassium existed.
• In nerve and muscle cells, repolarization occurs so
rapidly following depolarization that the action Typical action-potential waveform
potential appears as a spike of as little as 1 msec
total duration.
• Heart muscle, repolarizes much more slowly, with
the action potential for heart muscle usually lasting
from 150 to 300 msec.
• “all-or-nothing law”: The action poten­tial is always
the same for any given cell- Regardless of the
method by which a cell is excited or the intensity of
the stimulus (provided it's sufficient to activate the
cell).
Absolute refractory period & Relative
refractory period
• Absolute refractory period- Following the
generation of an action potential, there is a
brief period of time during which the cell
cannot respond to any new stimulus.
• lasts about 1 msec in nerve cells.
• Following the absolute refractory period,
relative refractory period occurs.
• Relative refractory period- During which
another action potential can be triggered, but a
much stronger stimulation is required.
• In nerve cells, the relative refractory period lasts
several milliseconds.
Module 1.3
• Propagation of action potentials – bio electric potentials example(ECG, EEG,
EMG, ERG, EOG, EGG etc.)
PROPAGATION OF ACTION
POTENTIALS
• When a cell is excited and generates an action potential ionic currents begin to
flow.
• This excite neighbouring cells or adjacent areas of the same cell.
• Nerve cell with a long fiber, the action potential is generated over a very small
segment of the fiber’s length but is propagated in both directions from the
original point of excitation.
• Nerve cells are excited only near their “input end’’.
• As the action potential travels down the fiber, it cannot reexcite the portion of
the fiber immediately upstream, because of the refractory period that follows the
action potential.
• Propagation rate: Rate at which an action potential moves down a
fiber or is propagated from cell to cell.
• In nerve fibers the propagation rate is also called the nerve
conduction rate, or conduction velocity (NCV).
• This velocity varies widely, depending on the type and diameter of the
nerve fiber.
• velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second.
• Propagation through heart muscle is slower (average rate from 0.2 to 0.4
m/sec)
• Special time delay fiber between the atrial and ventricles of the heart cause
action potentials to propagate at an even slow rate, 0.03 to 0.05 m/sec.
THE BIOELECTRIC POTENTIALS
• To measure bioelectric potentials, a transducer is required. (converts ionic
potentials and currents into electric potentials and currents)
• Such a transducer consists of two electrodes, which measure the ionic potential
difference between their respective points of application.
• Elec­trodes- in MODULE 02
• Difficult to measure Individual action potentials in some types of cells- require
precise placement of an electrode inside a cell.
• More common form of measured bio-potentials: combined effect of a large
number of action potentials as they appear at the surface of the body, or at one
or more elec­trodes inserted into a muscle, nerve, or some part of the brain.
Voltage and Frequency Range
for Biopotentials
Ref: HANDBOOK OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION, By R.S. Khandpur.
 1. Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG)
• ECG (Electrocardiogram) /EKG (Electrokardiogram (German)): measures potentials on body
surface due to neuromuscular activity of the heart.
• ECG is a quasi-periodical, rhythmically repeating signal synchronized by the function of the heart.

*Detailed Discussions in Module 2

Electrophysiology of the Heart

• The contraction and relaxation of the cardiac

muscle follows a specific synchronized pattern
between the atria and the ventricles.
• This rhythmic contraction and relaxation is
preceded by electrical activity called the action
potential that is represented in the
depolarization and repolarization of the cardiac
muscle, respectively.
• Normally, the action potential originates in the
sinoatrial (SA) node known as “the pacemaker
of the heart”.
• Electrical activities of the heart can be precisely
measured and monitored via
electrocardiography (ECG).
Animation
 2. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• EEG measures potential fluctuations recorded from the brain
• Recorded potentials from the brain are called brain waves
• Entire record is called electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Brain recordings demonstrate continuous oscillating electric activity

*Detailed Discussions in Module 3

• The brain generates rhythmical potentials which originate in the individual
neurons of the brain.
• These potentials get summated as millions of cell discharge synchronously and
appear as a surface waveform, the recording of which is known as the
electroencephalogram (EEG).
• The EEG signal can be picked up with electrodes either from the scalp or
directly from the cerebral cortex.
• The variations in EEG amplitude and frequency are of
diagnostic value.
• Frequency information is particularly significant.
• EEG range is classified into the following five bands for
purposes of EEG analysis:
• The peak-to-peak amplitude: From the scalp is normally
100 mV or less, On the exposed brain is about 1 mV.
• Frequency: Varies greatly with different behavioural
states. Ref: K S Kandpur, “Hand book of Biomedical
instrumentation”, Tata McGraw Hill 2nd e/d.

• The nature of the wave varies over the different parts of

the scalp.
Brain Waves
• Delta waves
• occur in deep sleep or in serious brain disease
• Theta wave
• emotional stress, disappointment
• Alpha waves
• occur when the subject is awake but rested
• Beta waves
• occur during intense mental activity
• Gamma Waves
• They are correlated with large scale brain network
activity and cognitive phenomena such as working
memory, attention, and perceptual grouping, and
can be increased in amplitude via meditation.
EEG Sleep Patterns
• Changes that occur as a human subject goes to sleep
• Alpha rhythms dominate when the subject is relaxed
Epilepsy
• Clinical EEG is used for diagnosis of different forms of epilepsy
• EEG has also been shown to be useful for locating tumours.
• Sleep Study
 3.Electromyogram (EMG)

*Detailed Discussions in Module 3

3.Electromyogram (EMG)
• EMG detects the electrical potential generated by
muscle cells activated electrically or neurologically.
• EMG is performed using an instrument called an
electromyograph to produce a record called an
electromyogram
• used to detect neuromuscular abnormalities
• EMG measurements are made to obtain an indication of the amount of activity of a
given muscle, or a group of muscles.
• EMG pattern = summation of the individual action potentials from the fibres constituting
the muscle or muscles being studied.
• Electrodes:
• Surface electrodes on the skin : Used to record the electrical activity of the underlying muscle
mass.
• Needle electrodes: Used to record the action potentials from individual motor units for better
diagnostic information.
• Voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscle
• Muscle potentials range from 50 mV to 5 mV and the duration from 2 to 15 ms.
• Values vary with the anatomic position of the muscle and the size and location of the electrode.
• In a relaxed muscle, there are normally no action potentials.
 4.Electroretinogram (ERG)
• ERG is a recording of the temporal sequence of changes in potential in the retina when
stimulated with a brief flash of light.
• A transparent contact lens contains one electrode and the reference electrode can be
placed on the right temple.
• ERG can provide important diagnostic information on a variety of retinal disorders and is
useful in evaluating both inherited (hereditary) and acquired disorders of the retina.

A portable ERG
system
RETeval.
• a-wave-"late receptor potential,"-general physiological health of the
photoreceptors in the outer retina.
• b-wave- health of the inner layers of the retina
• c-wave-originating in the pigment epithelium
• d-wave-activity of the OFF bipolar cells
5. Electro-Oculogram(EOG)
• EOGis the recording of the corneal-retinal potential to determine the eye movement.
• By placing two electrodes to the left and the right of the eye or above and below the eye one can
measure the potential between the two electrode to determine the horizontal or vertical
movement of the eye. The potential is zero when the gaze is straight ahead.
• Applications
• Ophthalmological diagnosis.
• Sleep and dream research,
• Evaluating reading ability and
visual fatigue.
6. Electrogastrogram (EGG)
• ElectroGastroGraphy- Intended to record, store, view and analyse gastric
myoelectrical activity as an aid in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal motility
disorders.
• The technique is noninvasive.
• Applications
• Used when it is suspected that the muscles of the stomach or the nerves
controlling the muscles are not working normally.
• Evaluate normal and abnormal gastric electrical activity, leading to diagnosis
of the gastric motility dysfunction.
• Assessment of the efficacy of therapy or intervention, and
electrophysiological studies.
Some Projects..
References
• K S Kandpur, “Hand book of Biomedical instrumentation”, Tata McGraw Hill 2nd e/d.
• Leslie Cromwell, Fred J. Weibell, Erich A. Pfeiffer, Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements,
PHI, 2nd Edition, 2004
• Barbara Christe, Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
• J. J. Carr, “Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology”, Pearson Education 4th e/d.
• John G Webster, “Medical Instrumentation application and design”, John Wiley 3rd e/d.
Module 2
2.1 Bio potential electrodes –basic theory – microelectrodes – skin surface
electrodes – needle electrodes
ELECTRODE THEORY
• Devices that convert ionic potentials into electronic potentials are called
electrodes.
• Interface of metallic ions in solution with their associated metals results in an
electrical potential that is called the electrode potential.
• This potential is a result of the difference in diffusion rates of ions into and out of the metal.
• Equilibrium is produced by the formation of a layer (Double layer) of charge at the interface.
• Double layer, with the layer nearest the metal being of one polarity and the layer next to the
solution being of opposite polarity.
 ELECTRODE THEORY…

• Nonmetallic materials, such as hydrogen, also have

electrode potentials when interfaced with their
associated ions in solution.
• All electrode potentials are given as relative values
and must be stated in terms of some reference
(normal hydrogen electrode).
• Electrode potentials (in the table) represent the
potentials that would be obtained across the
stated electrode and a hydrogen electrode if both
were placed in a suitable ionic solution.

All the electrode potentials listed in Table are given with

respect to the hydrogen electrode.
ELECTRODE THEORY…

• Another source of an electrode potential is the unequal exchange of ions across a

membrane that is semipermeable to a given ion when the membrane separates
liquid solutions with different concentrations of that ion.
• An equation relating the potential across the membrane and the two
concentrations of the ion is called the Nernst equation and can be stated as
follows:
ELECTRODE THEORY…

• The activity coefficients, f1 and f2 depend on such factors as the charges of all ions
in the solution and the distance between ions.
• The product, C1f1 of a concentration and its associated activity coefficient is called
the activity of the ion responsible for the electrode potential.
• Electrode potential across the membrane is proportional to the logarithm of the
ratio of the activities of the subject ion on the two sides of the membrane.
• In a very dilute solution the activity coefficient /approaches unity, and the electrode potential becomes
a function of the logarithm of the ratio of the two concentrations.
• In electrodes used for the measurement of bioelectric potentials, the electrode
potential occurs at the interface of a metal and an electrolyte, whereas in
biochemical transducers both membrane barriers and metal-electrolyte
interfaces are used.
BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES
1. Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure bioelectric potentials near or
within a single cell.
2. Skin surface electrodes: Electrodes used to measure ECG, EEG, and EMG
potentials from the surface of the skin.
3. Needle electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the skin to record EEG
potentials from a local region of the brain or EMG potentials from a specific
group of muscles.
• All three types of biopotential electrodes have the metal-electrolyte interface.
• An electrode potential is developed across the interface, proportional to the
exchange of ions between the metal and the electrolytes of the body.
• Double layer of charge at the interface acts as a capacitor.
• Equivalent circuit of biopotential electrode in contact
with the body consists of a voltage in series with a
resistance-capacitance network of the type shown.
• Measurement of bioelectric potentials requires two
electrodes, the voltage measured is really the
difference between the instantaneous potentials of the
two electrodes, as shown in Figure 4.2.
• The resistance-capacitance networks represent the
impedance of the electrodes as fixed values of
resistance and capacitance. The impedance is
frequency-dependent because of the effect of the
capacitance.
• If the two electrodes are of the same type, the difference is usually small and depends essentially
on the actual difference of ionic potential between the two points of the body from which
measurements are being taken.
• If the two electrodes are different, they may produce a significant dc voltage that can cause
current to flow through both electrodes as well as through the input circuit of the amplifier to
which they are connected. DC voltage due to the difference in electrode potentials is called the
electrode offset voltage.
• The resulting current is often mistaken for a true physiological event. Even two electrodes of the same material may
produce a small electrode offset voltage.
• Chemical activity that takes place within an electrode can cause voltage fluctuations to appear
without any physiological input, this may appear as noise on a bioelectric signal.
• This can be reduced by proper choice of materials or, in most cases, by special treatment, such as coating the
electrodes by some electrolytic method to improve stability.
• Electrochemically , the silver-silver chloride electrode is very stable.
• This type of electrode is prepared by electrolytically coating a piece of pure silver with silver chloride.
• A second piece of silver is also placed in the solution, and the two are connected to a voltage source
such that the electrode to be chlorided is made positive with respect to the other. Silver ions
combine with the chloride ions from the salt to produce neutral silver chloride molecules that coat
the silver electrode.
• Both the electrode potential and the impedance are varied by an effect called
polarization.
• Polarization is the result of direct current passing through the metal-electrolyte
interface.
• like that of charging a battery with the polarity of the charge opposing the flow of current that
generates the charge.
• Amplifier with extremely high input impedance- Effect of polarization or any other change in
electrode impedance is minimized.
• Size and type of electrode are also important in determining the electrode
impedance.
• Larger electrodes tend to have lower impedances.
• Surface electrodes generally have impedances of 2 to 10 kΩ,
• Small needle electrodes and microelectrodes have much higher impedances.
• For best results in reading or recording the potentials measured by the
electrodes, the input impedance of the amplifier must be several times that of
the electrodes.
Micro Electrodes
● Small tips to penetrate
● Measures biopotential within or near to single cell
● Electrode placement: Complicated procedure
● Small surface area : High impedance (3-10 M Ohm).
● Require amplifiers with very high input impedance

● Types
● Metal electrode
● Supported-Metal Microelectrodes
● Micropipette electrode
Micro Electrodes
Metal microelectrode
● Made of fine tungsten/steel core
● Microtip is formed by electrolytic etching
● Except the tip, fully insulated
Micro Electrodes
Supported Metal microelectrode
• The properties of two different materials are used to advantage in supported metal
microelectrodes.
• A strong insulating material makes the basic support.
• A metal with good electrical conductivity constitutes the contacting portion of the
electrode.
• Glass for mechanical support and insulator.
Micro Electrodes
Micropipette
● Fabricated from glass capillaries
● Electrolyte in the micropipette: 3M KCl
● Metal electrode contacts electrolyte in the pipette(Ag/AgCl)
 Body(Skin) Surface Electrodes
● Extract Bioelectric Potentials from the surface of the body
● ECG, EEG, EMG etc are measured from the body surface
● For ECG - large surface area electrode(localization is not important)

Long chain of evolution path:

From immersion electrode to floating electrode with large number of
intermediate types
Body(Skin) Surface Electrodes
Immersion Electrode
● Earliest type
● Subject places hands/feet in bucket of saline solution
● Danger of electrolytic spillage
● No more in use
Body(Skin) Surface Electrodes
Plate Electrodes
● Metal plates act as electrode
● Cotton pad soaked in saline solution: electrolyte
● Now conductive jelly replaced soaked pads
Body(Skin) Surface Electrodes
Suction Cup Electrode
● Only rim is attached to skin
● uses the negative fluid pressure of air or water to adhere to nonporous surfaces,
creating a partial vacuum
Body(Skin) Surface Electrodes
Immersion Electrode, Plate Electrodes, Suction Cup Electrode
● Subject to motion artifacts
● Motion changes electrode potentials
● Affect the measured quantity
Body(Skin) Surface Electrodes
Floating Electrode
● Eliminate movement artifacts
● Metal not in direct contact with the skin
● Only conductive path is electrolyte bridge
● Attached to skin by adhesive collors.
 Body(Skin) Surface
Electrodes
Disposable Electrode
● Floating type with small snap connectors
● Pre-gelled for immediate use
● Used for ECG, EEG ,EMG
 Body(Skin) Surface
Electrodes
Ear Clip Electrode, Scalp surface electrode
● Special purpose electrodes
● Specific application
 Needle Electrodes

● No electrode gel is used and the interface is the electrode-

electrolyte interface
● Percutaneous electrode
– Electrode or lead wire crosses the skin
– Needle electrode: insulated needle electrode, coaxial needle electrode,
bipolar coaxial electrode
● It reduces motion artifacts and interface impedance
 Needle Electrodes
Applications:
● Special needle electrodes for simultaneous measurement from various
depths along certain axis of brain
● In animal research: Long needles precisely located by atlas of brain
● For EMG/EEG: Fine insulated wires with bare tips in contact with nerve
/muscle. Hypodermal needles are are used for surgical implant of
wires, and later withdrawn.
○ Single wire inside the needle: unipolar. Measured wrt. indifferent electrode
○ Two wires: bipolar electrode. Localized measurement between two wire tips.
 Electrode Usage-Practical
Hints
● Electrode and lead wire(exposed to electrolyte) - same material
● Avoid solder, if it comes in contact with electrolyte
● Electrical artifact due to corrosion of lead wire/ insulation, due to
continuous exposure to electrolyte or body fluid
● Low freq. Current from electrosurgical unit - rectified by ECG
electrodes-causes low freq. Interference
● Use high input impedance bio amplifiers
• BIOCHEMICAL TRANSDUCERS
1. Reference Electrodes
2. pH Electrode
3. Blood Gas Electrodes
4. Specific Ion Electrodes
BIOCHEMICAL TRANSDUCERS
• An electrode potential is generated either at a metal-electrolyte interface or
across a semi-permeable membrane separating two different concentrations of
an ion that can diffuse through the membrane.
• Both methods are used in transducers designed to measure the concentration of
an ion or of a certain gas dissolved in blood or some other liquid.
• Usual method of measuring concentrations of ions or gases is to use one
electrode (sometimes called the indicator or active electrode) that is sensitive to
the substance or ion being measured and to choose the second, or reference
electrode, of a type that is insensitive to that substance.
Reference Electrodes
• Hydrogen gas/hydrogen ion interface has been designated as the
reference interface and was arbitrarily assigned an electrode potential
of zero volts.
• Electrodes make use of the principle that an inert metal, such as platinum,
readily absorbs hydrogen gas.
• Problems with Hydrogen electrode
• Its not sufficiently stable to serve as a good reference electrode.
• Problem of maintaining the supply of hydrogen to pass through the electrode
during a measurement limits its usefulness to a few special applications.
• Measurement of electrochemical concentrations simply requires a change of
potential proportional to a change in concentration, the electrode potential of
the reference electrode can be any amount, as long as it is stable and does not
respond to any possible changes in the composition of the solution being
measured.
• Good reference electrode is essentially = most stable electrode available.
• Two types of electrodes have interfaces sufficiently stable to serve as reference
electrodes
• silver-silver chloride electrode
• calomel electrode.
• In the chemical transducer, the ionic (silver chloride)
side of the interface is connected to the solution by
an electrolyte bridge, usually a dilute potassium
chloride (KCl) filling solution which forms a liquid
junction with the sample solution.
Selective Ion Electrode