Clay Products

• Bricks made with alternate materials

• Terracotta
• Porcelain and Stoneware
• Clay roofing tile
Clay Products
Clay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials.

The raw materials used in their manufacture are clay blended with quartz,
sand, chamatte (refractory clay burned at 1000-1400°C and crushed), slag,
sawdust and pulverized coal.

Structural clay products or building ceramics are basically fabricated by

moulding, drying and burning a clay mass.
Higher the bulk specific gravity, the stronger is the clay product.

• Bricks
• Hourdi Blocks
• Tiles
• Pipes
• Terracotta
• Earthenwares
• Stonewares
• Porcelain
 10x14x4

Hourdi beam roof in the making

Fly ash brick
Fly ash is the finely divided residue that results
from the combustion of pulverized coal
• lighter and stronger than clay bricks
• lesser water absorption compared to clay brick
• machine made and dried in controlled
environment
• no burning required hence less energy
intensive
• consumption of waste material
Thermal conductivity of is 0.90-1.05 W/m2 deg C
All brick units within the 100km radius of a
thermal power plant are required to use fly ash
Ingredients:
• fly ash (60-80%)
• water
• sand (20-25%)
• cement(8-10%)
Mixed with water to achieve desired consistency
moulded by machine
• Control dried for 24 hours
• Sun dried and send to site

• Brick weight-2.6kg
• Brick strength-7.5-10 N/ sq. mm
Compressed Earth Block/ Earth Block
Compressed Stabilised Earth Block

Moist earth compressed under high pressure

(20N/sqmm)
• Low embodied energy
• Low carbon emission
• Compressive strength-5-7N/sq mm
• Water absorption-5-20%
• Types: Class A, B

Training Centre of the Auroville Earth Institute

This building is constructed entirely with stabilised earth, from the
foundations to the waterproofing:
• Stabilised rammed earth foundations (with 5 % cement)
• Stabilised rammed earth walls (with 5 % cement and a “homeopathic”
milk of lime and alum)
• Composite columns (round and hollow CSEB with reinforced concrete)
• Composite beams (U shape CSEB with reinforced concrete)
• Stabilized earth mortars and plasters
• Wide variety of compressed stabilised earth blocks (17 moulds are
Auram press 3000, multi mould manual
presently available for producing about 75 different types of blocks)
press with 17 moulds
• Various vaults with compressed stabilised earth blocks
• Alternative stabilizers to cement (“homeopathic” milk of lime and
alum)
• Alternative waterproofing with stabilized earth (various mixes of soil,
sand, cement, lime, alum and juice of a local seed.
India, Tamil Nadu - Sri Karneshwara Nataraja temple
India, Tamil Nadu - Sri Karneshwara Nataraja temple
Clay Tiles
• Tiles are thin slabs of low melting clays used for various purposes in
engineering constructions.
These are durable and impervious to water, resist abrasion well and wash
easily.
• White burning and red burning clays, fire clays and shales are used in
making tiles for floor surfaces.
• Tiles for surface of walls differ from floor tiles principally in design in
degree of burning.
Wall tiles are burned at a comparatively low temperature, glazed, and fired
again in muffle kiln at a still lower temperature.
Flooring Tiles
A good flooring tile should have the following properties:
uniform texture.
• accurate size and shape.
• free from defects like flaws, cracks and non uniform
burning.
• water absorption (less than 15 per cent).
• resistant to dampness. Atmosphere and durability.
Roof Tiles
A good roofing tile should have the following
properties:
uniform texture.
• accurate size and shape.
• free from defects like flaws, cracks and non
uniform burning.
• water absorption (less than 15 per cent).
• resistant to dampness. atmosphere and
• durability.
REVISITED
Valley jacks extend from a valley rafter to a ridge: Valley rafters connect
the ridge to the wall plate along a valley.
Hip Roofs
Hip roofs have sloping ends and sides meeting at an inclined projecting
angle.
Ridge board
Common rafters
Hip rafters form the junction of the sloping sides of a hip roof.
Jack rafter is any rafter that is shorter than the full length of the roof slope,
as one meeting a hip or a valley.
Hip jacks are jack rafters extending from a wall plate to a hip rafter.
Gambrel Roofs
Gambrel roofs are divided on each side into a shallower slope above a
steeper one.
1. Roofing Tiles
2. Types of Roofing Tiles
2.1. Flat Tiles
2.1.1. Burnt Clay Flat Terracing Tiles
2.1.2. Slat Tiles
2.2. Pot Tiles or Country Tiles or Locking Tiles
2.3. Allahabad Tiles
2.4. Corrugated Tiles
2.5. Mangalore tiles
2.6. Guna Tiles
2.7. Ridge, Valley and Lip Tiles
2.8. Encaustic Tiles

Clay.—  The  clays  used  in  the  manufacture  of roofing tile are similar to those used for brick. Unglazed tile comes
in a variety of shades, from a yellow-orange to a deep red, and in blends of grays and greens. Highly glazed tiles are
often used on prominent buildings and for  landmark  purposes.

Clay roofing tiles are produced as either flat or roll tile.  Flat  tile  may  be  English  (interlocking  shingle)  or French.
Roll tiles are produced in Greek or Roman pan-and-cover, Spanish or Mission style.

Roll Tile.— Roll tile is usually installed over two layers  of  hot-mopped  15-pound  felt.  Double-coverage felts, laid
shingle fashion, lapped 19 inches, and mopped with hot asphalt, may be required as an underlayment. The
individual tiles are nailed to the sheathing through pre-punched  holes.  Special  shapes  are  available  for starter
 courses,  rakes,  hips,  and  ridges.  Some manufacturers  produce  tiles  in  special  tile-and-a-half units for exposed
locations, such as gables and hips
So, what are the advantages? It is energy-wise less energy-intensive. It uses the waste (as its raw material). It
does not take so much time for manufacturing. It has to be dried in a controlled environment first, and then
you can sun-dry it. These are moulded from machines, as you can see in this picture taken from Gava fly-ash
brick factory in Kharagpur. The fly-ash which is lying here (see image) has been converted to this brick.

So, a lot of construction is being done by these fly-ash bricks. It has become popular and gradually at par in
price with clay bricks. Earlier it was much cheaper. People believed that the low price was due to being of
inferior quality, and hence many did not buy them. In reality, fly-ash is of sufficiently good quality.

The ingredients of fly-ash bricks are around 60 to 80% fly-ash, the rest is sand (20- 25%), and cement of
which is about 8 to 10%. It may also be replaced by lime because cement or lime is the stabilizer which
helps the items to become whole. These are mixed with an adequate amount of water to get the desired
consistency, moulded, control-dried for 24 hours within a factory shed, and later on put under sun, and
finally becomes ready for the site.

Its strength is as good as a second class brick. Weight is almost like that of a first- class brick—however, clay
bricks maybe a little heavier. Fly-ash brick maintains this
2.6 kg weight, and its use is similar to that of clay brick. You may or may not plaster it. The water
absorption is up to 15%.
Clay has been supported with ground glass, crushed pottery (that is, broken pottery
items that have been grounded), and clean white sand. So, along with clay, which has
the maximum percentage, it also requires adding ground glass, crushed pottery, and
white sand- again mixed thoroughly, multiple times in the pugmill, and then moulded
with this ornamentation on it.

After this ornamentation, the entire product is put into the muffle furnace and is burnt.
Because of adding glass, it provides an impervious layer (or coating) on top of it,
preventing water absorption. The final product has a very low water absorption (even
less than 12%) property. It is very hard and durable and can stand for years together.
This is a very rich ornamental part.

Terracotta ornamentation has to be made uniquely for every building. So, obviously,
the price is higher. Various decorative items (such as terracotta plates) may be
manufactured in a similar way. You may install these terracotta works in building
entrances to emphasize the design (or make it grand). Thus, it can give you a heritage
value to it because these were used in our temples. But the mass-scale production of
terracotta is no more practiced.

In modern times, you can use templates, you can procure (order) it as per your desire
from manufacturers, and only then it can be used. Terracotta finds its use in
ornamental parts of a building, temple facades, and the like. Sometimes it is
Now let us move to the other two items, the porcelain, and the stoneware. You can see the pictures on
your left-hand side. The washbasins, the cisterns, the commodes, the water closets, the sinks- all the
sanitary fixtures have a glass-like coating on top of it, and it appears seamless and smooth. This is used
due to its anti-microbial properties.
It cannot be stained and not affected by acids or alkalis. It has a permanent coating on top of it, which is
the glaze. This is made of China clay, feldspar, kaolin, silica, and clay baked together at a high
temperature to achieve vitreousness. Similar to brick manufacture, the kiln temperature may rise to
1100°C or similar. These items are baked further at higher temperatures to acquire the property of
vitrification.
The mixture must be baked at temperatures of around 1400-1500°C to get vitrified. Once vitrified, it
does not absorb water, and this glaze on top of it becomes transparent and gives an impervious look or
characteristic to the item. Another alternative item is stoneware (refractory clay), which is made from
silica and alumina.
In the case of stoneware, you add stone dust and crushed pottery (as we had used in terracotta) and bake
it to a high temperature again to achieve vitreousness and low porosity. It will be hard, compact, strong,
and durable. It finds its applications in places like culvert pipes (see image), where resistance to
weather is necessary.
(vertical load), so it would not break, and it is quite durable. Some sanitary wares are
also made with stoneware.

Another related item (which I have not put into the slide) is earthenware. Those are
not so stable like stoneware and are not much used in the building industry. They
may find some applications in pipes and plumbing.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

Now, after we have finished with all the items, we come to the last topic under clay,
which is clay tile (particularly clay roofing tile). We have flooring tiles, we have wall
tiles which are also made of clay, but we will cover them when we discuss glass and
ceramics. So, what you see here - this clay roof tile is used as a unit to cover the roof.
an inclined position and are interlocked unit-by-unit. In the case of brick, you had to
affix them in place with mortar. Here, clay tiles are not added or fixed; they are kept
interlocked and are replaceable when needed. If one of the tiles gets damaged, you
can replace it with a new one. So, now how are they fixed?

The picture provides some details. The appearance of tiles may vary across the
country. It may be available in different shapes, but the principle remains the same.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:03)

It has a supporting member or a nib that will help it to hold (or cling), which is called
the „nib‟. It keeps the tile in place to cling to the purlin or the framing system. Here is
a better picture- there are two holes, which are called the “nail holes”, that run
So, how much distance will it overlap? The next tile will actually have to protect the nail hole. Here is the
nail hole. So, the next tile should start from here (see image), so that no water can enter into the system into
the room. So, you have to remember this upper tile should cover the nail hole and it must drain all the water
to the next tile, and this follows downwards.

At the end, you must have a special gutter system which again will collect the water which is coming down
and ultimately gets drained, such that no water can enter here and seep into the building. On the sides, you
see only this circle shape with a very small gap which is allowing the water to flow.

But actually, the tile starts from here and goes till there (see image). Again, it starts from here and goes till
the lower part (not visible). It may sometimes follow an undertile and overtile pattern. It may be something
like this and then like this (see image). This is one tile and is supported with an overtile. There may be
many types. On the side, there is again a interlocking method adapted so that water does not leak through
the roof.

So, you have a tight claw-like interlocking arrangement. And the overtile (upper tile) is covering the nail
hole so that no leakage happens. Thus, your roof becomes watertight. And any kind of replacement required
is possible. Also, as already told, these are not capable of withstanding load. The tiles may break by the
hitting (impact) of even a stone.
You may move or displace the tiles, uncover the nail holes, and replace the tile. At the
ends, there is the eave tile, specially made for eaves gutter. We also have a special tile for
the ridge (or the top). It is made such that no water can enter through any opening at
the top. So, now this sits against the frame below. Let us revisit it.

So, this is the frame (see picture). Now how are these frames to be fixed? You have to
know what is the locally available tiles‟ dimension. Based on that, these wooden
supports (called „purlins‟) are to be fixed, and these are the common rafters onto which
they are to be fixed. And here comes the ridge, and the ridge tile. At the bottom
you have comes the gutter tile, the eaves gutter, and in between these, you have to
place your regular tiles.

Here you see further detail of the nail hole; the upper tiles are one on top of other.
This is a very indigenous mechanism. This method is still followed across all our
countrysides in rural India. They easily replace or repair the tiles when needed. Thus
these tiles form a weather resistant or a proper roofing to their house.

With all these, I conclude with the clay products and also the alternate materials used
for replacing brick. The various other clay products that we studied are terracotta,
porcelain, stoneware and clay tile. Under clay tile, we understood how it has to be
fixed. Similarly, we knew that in case of brick- how bricks had to be arranged to get
brick masonry.

Here, we understood how clay tiles are to be placed to get proper weather-resistant
roofing. We conclude this lecture on clay, and thank you all.