Building Construction

FOUNDATIONS
• Every building consists of two basic
Components
– The super structure
– The sub structure (Foundation)
• The basic function of foundation is to transmit
– the dead load (weight of walls, partitions, floors,
roofs, and other permanent structures
– super imposed load (Live loads) people, furniture,
machines etc.
– wind load
• From a building to the soil on which the building
rests in such away that
1. settlements are with in permissible limits, without
causing cracks in the super structure
2. the soil doesn’t fail
 Cont…
• Generally foundation is therefore, that part of
the structure which is in direct contact with
the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.
• The foundation should be sufficiently strong
to prevent excessive settlement as well as
differential settlement.
 Cont…
• Differential settlement may be caused by
– weak sub soils, such as made up of ground
– Shrinkable and expansive soils (clay)
– frost action
– movement of ground water and uplift pressure
– excessive vibration, slipping of strata on slopping
etc.
• Foundations serve the following purposes
1. Reduction of load intensity
- by increasing the area of contact, so that the
total load divided by the total area (intensity of
load) doesn’t exceed the bearing capacity of the
soil.
2. Even distribution of loads
- Foundations distribute the non uniform load of
the superstructure evenly to the sub soil.
3. Provision of level surface
4. Lateral stability
- It anchors the super structure to the ground,
thus imparting lateral stability to the super
structure.
5. Safety against undermining
- provides structural safety against undermining
(scouring) due to burrowing animals and flood
water.
6. Protection against soil movements
- minimizes cracks in the super structure due to
expansion or contraction of sub soil because of
moisture movement in some problematic soils.
• Essential Requirements of a good foundation
– sustain the dead and imposed loads
– it should be rigid
– good location.
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
• The selection of the foundation type for a particular
site depends on the following considerations:
1. Nature of sub soil
2. Nature and extent of difficulties e.g. boulder, buried
tree trunks etc.
3. Availability of expertise and equipment.
• Depending upon their nature and depth,
foundations have been classified as follows
• Shallow Foundation System
• Deep Foundation System
a) Shallow Foundation System
i) Spread Foundation
ii) Mat / Raft Foundation
b) Deep Foundation System
i) Piles
ii) Piers
iii) Caissons
 SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Advantages
a) Cost (affordable)
b) Construction Procedure (simple)]
c) Material (mostly concrete)
d) Labour (doesn’t need expertise)
 SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATION
 It’s an enlargement at the bottom of a
column/ bearing wall that spreads the applied

structural loads over a sufficiently large soil

area.
 Each column & each bearing wall has its own
spread footing, so each structure may include
dozens of individual footings.
SPREAD FOUNDATION
 The foundation consists of concrete slabs
located under each structural column and a
continuous slab under load-bearing walls.
 For the spread foundation system the
structural load is literally spread out over a
broad area under the building
 Most common type of foundation used due
to their low cost & ease of construction.
 Most often used in small to medium size
structure with moderate to good soil condition.
 Spread footings may be built in different
shapes & sizes to accommodate individual
needs such as the following:
a) Square Spread Footings / Square Footings
b) Rectangular Spread Footings
c) Circular Spread Footings
d) Continuous Spread Footings
e) Combined Footings
f) Strap Footing
g) Ring Spread Footings
a) Square Spread Footings / Pad Foundation
- support a single centrally located column
- use concrete mix 1:2:4 and
reinforcement
- the reinforcement in both axes are to
resist/carry tension loads.
PAD FOUNDATION
b) Rectangular Spread Footings
- Useful when obstructions prevent
construction of a square footing with a
sufficiently large base area and when
large moment loads are present
c) Circular Spread Footings
- are round in plan view
- most frequently used as foundation for
light standards, flagpoles and power
transmission lines.
d)Continuous Spread Footings / Strip
Foundation
- Used to support bearing walls
e) Combined Footings
- support more than one column
- Types:
– Rectangular Combined Footings p1
– Trapezoidal Combined Footings P2
– Combined column wall

Rectangular Combined Footings

• Trapezoidal Combined Footings
P2 P1
• Combined column wall
f) Strap footing
– used when the distance between the column is so
great. (b/s expensive for Trapezoidal footing)

Beam
g) Ring Spread Footings
- continuous footings that have been wrapped
(covered)into a circle
- commonly used to support the walls above-ground
circular storage tanks.
- The contents of these tanks are spread evenly
across the total base area
 RAFT FOUNDATION
 A foundation system in which essentially the
entire building is placed on a large continuous
footing.
 It is a flat concrete slab, heavily reinforced
with steel, which carries the downward loads
of the individual columns or walls.
 Raft foundations are used to spread the load
from a structure over a large area, normally
the entire area of the structure.
MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION
 It is normally consists of a concrete slab
which extends over the entire loaded area.
 It may be stiffened(rigid) by ribs or beams
incorporated into the foundation.
 Raft foundations have the advantage of
reducing differential settlements as the
concrete slab resists differential
movements between loading positions.
 They are often needed on soft or loose soils
with low bearing capacity as they can
spread the loads over a larger area.
Mat Foundation often considered to be
used when dealing with the following
conditions:
a) The structural loads are so high or the soil
condition so poor that spread footings would
be exceptionally large. As a general rule of
thumb, if spread footings would cover more
than 50% of the building footprint area, a
mat or some type of deep foundation will
usually be more economical.
b) The soil is very erratic & prone to excessive
differential settlements. The structure
continuity and flexural strength of a mat will
bridge over these irregularities.
The same is true of mats on highly expansive
soils prone to differential heaves.
c) The structural loads are erratic(having no
fixed course) and thus increase the
likelihood of excessive differential
settlements. Again, the structural continuity
and flexural strength of the mat will absorb
these irregularities.
d) The lateral loads are not uniformly
distributed through the structure and thus
may cause differential horizontal
movements in spread footings and pile
caps.
The continuity of a mat will resist such
movement.
e)The uplift loads are larger than spread
footings can accommodate. The greater
weight and continuity of a mat may provide
sufficient resistance.
f) The bottom of the structure is located
below the groundwater table, so
waterproofing is an important concern.
Because mats are monolithic, they are
much easier to waterproof. The weight of
the mat also helps resist hydrostatic uplift
forces from the groundwater.
 DEEP FOUNDATION
• Deep foundations are those in which the depth of
the foundation constructed by ordinary methods
of open pit excavations. Deep foundations are of
the following types.
• Pile foundations- more commonly used.
• pier foundation
• caisson or wall foundation
• Pile foundations
– Pile foundations are preferable under the
following situation
• when the load of the super structure is heavy and its
distribution is un uniform.
• the top soil has poor bearing capacity
• the sub soil water level is high so that pumping of
water from the open trenches for the shallow
foundations is difficult and uneconomical.
• when there is large fluctuations in sub soil water level
• when the structure is situated on the sea shore or river
bed
• canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundations.
• Types of piles
– Piles used for building foundation may be of four
types; based on the function they serve.
i) End bearing pile
• used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a
suitable bearing stratum.
• Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely to hard
strata.
• Multi-storeyed buildings are always founded on end
bearing piles, so that the settlements are minimized.
loose soil loose soil

Hard strata

Fig- End bearing pile

• ii) Friction piles
– used to transfer load to a depth of a friction –
load- carrying material by means of skin friction
along the length of the pile
– Generally used in granular soil where the depth of
hard stratum is very great.
• iiI) Combined end bearing & Friction Pile
– used to transfer the super imposed load both
through side friction as well as end bearing.
 side side
friction friction

Fig -Friction pile Fig- Combined End bearing and

friction pile
• iv) Compaction piles
– used to compact loose granular soils, thus
increasing their bearing capacity. The compaction
piles themselves do not carry a load. Hence they
me be of weaker material (eg timber, bamboo,
etc)
• The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is
gradually taken out and sand is filled in its
place thus forming a ‘sand pile’
Fig compaction pile
• Pier Foundations (drilled caisson foundation)
• transfer large superimposed loads to the firm strata
below
• The difference between pile foundation and pier
foundation lies in the method of construction.
• pile foundations transfer the load through friction and
or bearing, pier foundations transfer the load only
through bearing.
• pier foundation is shallower in depth than pile
foundation
• pier foundation is preferred in a location where the top
strata consists of decomposed rock over lying a strata
of sound rock. In such cases it is difficult to drive the
bearing piles through decomposed rock.
Pier
Pier
Pier
• Well Foundations (Caissons)
– These are box like structures circular or
rectangular which are sunk from the surface of
either land or water to the desired depth.
– Much large in diameter than the pier foundations.
– These are used for major foundation works, such
as:
– bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes, etc
– wharves, quay, walls, docks (related to ships)
– Break waters and other structures for shore
protection.
– large water front structures such as pump houses
– Well foundations are not used for building
Caissons
Reinforced Concrete Caissons
Caissons
Caisson As One Of The Elements In This Structure
• Foundations For Black Cotton soils
– In black cotton soil and other expansive type of
soils, building often cracks due to relative ground
movements.
– This is caused by alternate swelling and shrinkage
of the soil due to changes in its moisture content.
I. Strip or pad foundation:
• For medium loads, strip foundation (for walls) and pad
foundation ( for columns) may be provided with care.
 wall

Plinth beam Floouring

Plinth Flouring
beam

Plinth protection

sand
Plinth
protection
sand

30 30 Mooram 60 -90cm
sand
Mooram
60 cm
Fig. Alternate layers of sand and
mooram
sand

Fig Simple sand fill

• II. Pier foundation with arches.
– Piers are dug at regular interval and filled with
cement concrete. The piers may rest on good
bearing strata.
– These piers are connected by concrete or masonry
arch, over which the wall is constructed
FIG. Pier Foundation With Arch
• III. Under- reamed pile foundation
• An under – reamed pile is a pile of shallow depth (1 to
6m) having one bulb at its lower end. If the bulb is
provided at a level lower than the critical depth of
moisture movement in expansive soils,
• the foundation will be anchored to the ground and it
would not move with the swelling and shrinkage of the
soil. The diameter of the piles vary from 15cm-50cm
and are reinforced.
• Spacing of the piles may vary between 2-4m.
• The piles are connected by a rigid capping beam,
suitably reinforced over which the wall is constructed.
• The capping beam is kept 8 to 12 cm above the ground
level, so as to provide air gap to accommodate the soil
movement
– Fig. Under – Reamed Pile Foundation
WALLS
 WALLS
• Wall is one of the most essential components of a
building.
• The primary function is to enclose or divide space of the
building to make it more functional and useful.
• Walls provide privacy, afford security and give protection
against heat, cold, sun and rain. Walls provide support to
floors and roofs.
• Walls could be:
– Load bearing walls
• carry vertical loads in addition to self weight
• External walls
– Non Load Bearing Walls
• Support no other loads except their own weight
• Serve as divide walls partition walls
• Partition wall - is a thin internal wall which is
constructed to divide the space with in the
building in to rooms or areas.
• It may be load bearing or non load bearing.
• A load bearing partition wall is called an
internal wall.
Functional requirement of walls:
i – They should be able to support upper floors and roof
together with the parts of the building.
ii- walls must be resistant to dampness.
iii- walls should provide adequate thermal insulation.
iv- walls should serve as sound barrier.
v - walls should be fire resistant.
In case of fire , the wall should not disintegrate but
should continue to bear its load and enclose the space.
Wall Materials:
•In many parts of Ethiopia the traditional wall
consists of mud some times interspersed with
sticks. Mud walls have the advantage of being
heat and fire resistant but are easily weakened
by rain.
•External walls: - Block construction (H.C.B)
-Monolithic ( R.C.C or plane concrete)
- panels
 Brick Masonry
• Masonry is defined as the construction of
building units bonded together with mortar.
• Brick masonry is made of Brick units bonded
together with mortar.
• Brick and mortar are essential components of
brick masonry. Bricks are manufactured by
molding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform
predetermined size, drying them and burning in a
kiln.
• The nominal dimension of bricks is 60mm x
120mm x 250mm, for height (h), the breadth
(b), and Length (l) respectively.

stretcher
250

Header 120
60
• The strength of brick masonry chiefly depends
on:
– the quality of bricks
– quality of mortar
– method of bonding
• Types of Bricks ( Based on Function)
– common Bricks:- suitable for general building
construction but generally of poor appearance.
– Facing Bricks: especially made or selected to give
an attractive appearance.
– Engineering brick: dense and hard having high
strength to the loads.
• Brick Bonds:
– Bond is the system of laying bricks in such a
manner that there is no isolated vertical joints in
any row or course immediately above or below
the one considered.
 Types of Bonds
– Stretcher Bond
• A layer of continuous stretcher in elevation. The length
of the bricks are thus along
• the direction of the wall and used when the thickness
of the wall is less than 120cm. ( partitions walls etc.)

S S S S S S
• 2.Header Bond:
– is normally used one brick thick wall. Every brick
shows a header face on each side of the wall. The
width of the Brick are thus along the direction of
the wall.
H H H H H H H H H
• English Bond:
– Commonly used bond for all wall thickness and considered
to be the strongest.
– The bond consists of alternate courses of headers and
stretchers. In this bond the vertical joints of the header
courses come over each other; similarly the vertical joints
of the stretcher courses also come over each other.

H H H H H H H H
H

S S S S S S S S

Queen
closer
• Flemish Bond
– In this type of bond, each course is comprised of
alternate headers and stretchers. Every alternate
course starts with a header at the corner (i.e
quoin header). Quoin closers are placed next to
the quoin header in alternate courses to develop
the face lap. Flemish bonds are of two types.
S H S H S H S H S H
S H S H S H S H S H S
Quoin Closer

S S S S S S
• Brick partitions for walls can be :
– Plain brick partitions
– Reinforced brick partitions ( Brick +
Reinforcement)
– Brick nogging partitions ( Brick + timber)
 Stone Masonry
• The materials in stone masonry are mortar
and stone.
– Mortar is a homogeneous mixture , produced by
uniform mixing of a binder with inert material
(sand) and water to make a paste of required
consistency to bind the masonry unit.
– The stones used for masonry should be hard ,
durable, sound and free from weathering decay,
defects like cavities ,cracks, sand holes, patches of
loose or soft materials etc.
• Stones can be of the following origin.
– Igneous rock- Granite
– Sedimentary rock – Lime stones and sand stones
– Metamorphic – Slates and Marbles
• Stone masonry can be classified as :
– Rubble masonry
• Blocks stone that are used are either undressed or
comparatively roughly dressed.
• The masonry has wide joints since stones of irregular
sizes are used.
• Rubble masonry can be random rubble, square rubble,
or of miscellaneous type.
Random Rubble Square Rubble
( Regular)
• Ashlar Rubble masonry:
– Ashlar masonry consists of blocks of accurately
dressed stone with extremely fine bed and end
joints. The blocks may be either square or
rectangular shape.
• Hollow Block Walls / Partitions
– Structural clay tile unit and hollow concrete blocks
are now commonly employed for the construction
of partition wall. They are rigid, light, economical,
strong, and fire resistant
• Concrete partition
– consists of concrete slab, plain or reinforced,
supported laterally between vertical members.
The slab may be either pre-cast or cast- in-situ.
• Other common wall partitions are:
– glass partitions,
– metal lath partitions,
– asbestos sheet or galvanized iron sheet partitions,
– timber partitions are commonly adopted based on
the availability of materials and the functions they
serve.
Floors
 Floors
• The major purpose of floors is to support the
inmates of a building together with their
belongings.
• Floors are provided to divide a building in to
different levels for creating more
accommodation one above the other with in
certain limited space.
– The floor resting directly on the ground surface are
known as Ground floor.
– The other floor of each storey situated above the
ground level are known as upper floors.
• The floor must satisfy the following
requirements.
– Adequate strength and stability
– Prevent dampness inside the building by providing
a damp –proof member are
– Provide thermal insulation
– Prevent growth of vegetable matter and other
living organisms inside the building.
• ground floor

1. Compacted Earth fill

5
4 2. lean
3
2
Concrete
1 3. D.P.C
4. Cement concrete
5. Floor finish
• The following materials can be used for
construction of ground floor base
– Cement concrete
– Lime concrete stones
– bricks
– wooden blocks (wooden flooring)
• The materials used for floor finish or floor
covering are:
– Mud and Muram - Tiles
– Bricks - Marble
– Flagstones - Wood (timber)
– Cement Concrete - Asphalt
– Terrazzo - PVC or plastic
– Mosaic
• Selection of any one type of flooring materials
depend on
– initial cost,
– Appearance
– , durability,
– cleanliness,
– damp resistance Hardness,
– thermal and other acoustic criteria of the floor
 UPPER FLOORS
• They are supported either on the walls or on
columns.
• The structural design of upper floor has to be
such as to support the loads set up by the use
of the building, in addition to the self weight
and weight of partitions etc.
• However, the flooring materials are practically
the same as that used for ground floors.
• Some of the common upper floorings depending up
on the material used for construction and
arrangement of beams are as follows.
– Reinforce cement concrete floors
a) Simple slab flooring
– steel placed at the bottom of the slab keeping the minimum
clear cover of 15mm.
– Half of the bars are bent up near ends to take up the negative
bending moment caused due to partial fixidity at the ends
– Main reinforcement is placed in the direction of the span of
the slab which is equal to the width of the room.
L
one way slab=W  1.5
L
two way slab=
W
 1.5
b) Reinforced Brick flooring
• The compressive strength of bricks is utilized to bear
the compressive stress and steel bars are used to bear
the tensile stress in a slab
• Since the size of the brick is limited, continuity in the
slab is obtained by filling the joints between the bricks
by cement mortar.
• The reinforcing bars are embedded in the gap between
the bricks, which is filled with cement mortar.
• The reinforcing bars are embedded in the gap between
the bricks, which is filled with cement mortar.
c) Beam slab flooring
– when the width of room becomes more, the span
of slab increases, and simple R.C.C slab becomes
uneconomical. In this case the floor structure
consists of R.C.C beams and slabs cast
monolithically.
– This beams are known as T-beams and act as
intermediate supports to the slab which is
continuous over these beams.
– when the size is very large, these floor beams are
supported on longitudinal beams. which , in turn,
are either supported on R.C.C. columns or end
walls.
• Flat slab flooring
– Flat slab is a typical construction type in which a
reinforced slab is built monolithically with the
supporting columns and is reinforced in two or
more directions, with out any provision of beams.
– The flat slab thus transfers the lad directly to the
supporting columns suitably spaced below the
slab.
– Due to the absence of beam system in this type of
construction, a plain ceiling is obtained, thus
giving attractive appearance from architectural
point of view.
– The slab in a flat slab construction may be either
with drop or with out drop. Drop is the part of the
lab around the column which is of greater
thickness than the rest of the slab.
– Two way reinforcement system is commonly
adopted.
STAIRS
 STAIRS
• A stair is a set of step leading from on floor to the
other. It is provided to afford the means of ascent and
descent between various floors of a building.
• The room or enclosure of the building in which the stair
is located is known as stair case. The opening or space
occupied by the stair is known as stair way.
• Definitions:
– Tread- Horizontal portion of step up on which a foot is
placed.
– Going - The horizontal distance b/n front edges of two
consecutive steps (b/n two successive riser face)
– Rise- The vertical distance b/n the upper surface of two
consecutive steps.
– Landing- It is the level plat form at the top or bottom
of a flight between the floors. It facilitates change of
direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest.
– Flights- Continuous set of steps b/n floors or Landing.
– Run- Total length of stairs in a horizontal plane,
including landings.
– Soffit – It is the under side of a stair.
– strings or stringers- sloping members which support
the steps in a stair which run along the slope of the
stair.
– Newel post- vertical member placed at the ends of
flights to connect the ends of strings
 REQUIREMENTS OF STAIRS IN BUILDING.
– It should be so located as to provided easy access
to the occupants of the building.
– It should be well lighted and ventilated directly
from the exterior.
– It should be constructed out of sound material &
crafts man ship.
– Width of stair:
– It should be wide enough to carry the user with out much
crowed or inconvenience.
– width of tread for public buildings is 1.5m- 1.8m and for
residential buildings 1.0m-1.4m
– Length of Flight
- The maximum number of stairs in a flight is
preferably 10-12 but should not be more than 15.
- Minimum number of stairs should not be less
than 3
– Pitch of Stair
- The angle of stair way with the horizontal should
not be more than 420or less than 200. The
preferred angle is 300 - 350.
– Head room
- It is the minimum clear vertical distance between
the tread and over head structure (i.e ceiling etc)
– Step Dimension
- The rise and tread should be so selected that it
will ensure comfortable ascent or descent on
stairs.
- The minimum width of landing should be equal to
the width of the stair.
- The rise should be between 10cm to 15 cm
– Going should be b/n 25-30 cm
• FIG. Terms used in stairs
• Dimensions of a step
– The following rules are used as a guide line to
obtain satisfactory proportion of steps in a stair.
• 2* Rise + Going = 50 -70 [cm]
• Rise + Going = 40-45 [cm]
• Rise * Going = 400-450 [ cm2]
• Adopt Rise= 14cm and Going= 30 cm as standard; then
for every 20mm subtracted from going, add 10mm to
the rise.
– For example, 15cm x 28 cm, 16cm x 26 cm, 17cm x
24cm etc
• Types of Stairs
- Stairs can be classified in two broad
categories
– Straight stairs
– Turning stairs

• Turning stairs can further be divided in to the

following categories.
• Quarter turn stairs
• Half turn stairs (dog- legged and open well stairs)
• Three quarter turn stairs
• Bifurcated stairs
– Straight stairs
» This stair runs straight between the two floors.
» used for small houses where there are restrictions in
available width.
» The stair may consist of either one single flight or more
than one flight, usually two with a landing.
– Quarter turn stairs.
» A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction
either to the left or to the right, the turn being affected
either by introducing a quarter space landing.
» Quarter turn stairs are of two types
– Newel quarter turn stairs
- have the conspicuous newel posts at the beginning and end
of each flight
– Geometrical quarter turn stairs
- The stringer as well as the hand rail is continuous, with no
newel post at the landing.
• Half turn stairs.
– Half turn stair is the one which has its direction
reversed or change for 1800 .
- such stairs are quite common.
- They can be:
• Dog legged stairs
• Open newel half turn
• Geometrical half turn
– Dog legged stairs:
• It's name is due to its appearance is sectional vies.
• Newel posts are provided at the beginning and end of
each flight.
 – Open newel half turn stair
• has a space between the outer strings
– Geometrical half turn stairs
• The stringers and the hand rails are continuous with
out any intervening newel post.
• This can be either with half space landing or with out
landing.
•  
a) with Quarter Space landing b) with winders
Geometrical Quarter Turn Stairs
Dog- legged Stair
Open Newel half turn Stairs
Geometrical Half Turn stairs
• Stairs may be constructed of the following
materials
– Timber
– Stone
– Bricks
– Steel
– R.C.C
DOORS AND WINDOWS
 DOORS AND WINDOWS
• A door may be defined as an openable barrier
secured in a wall opening. A door is provided
to give access to the inside of a room of a
building. It serves as a connecting link
between the various internal portions of a
building.
• Basically a door consists of a door frame and a
door shutter. The door shutter is held in
position by the door frame which in turn is
fixed in opening of the wall by means of hold-
fasts etc.
• Frame
– is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members,
forming an enclosure to which the shutters are
fixed.
• Shutter
– is the open able part of a door or window. It is an
assembly of styles, panels and rails.
• Head
– is the top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame.
• Sill
– is the lowest or bottom horizontal part of a
window frame.
• Style
– is the vertical outside member of the shutter of a
door or window
• Panel
– is the area of the shutter enclosed between the
adjacent rails.
• Mullion is a vertical member of a frame, which
is employed to sub-divide a window or a door
vertically.
• Locations of a door depends upon
– The number of the door should be kept minimum
– It should not be located in the center of the wall
but rather preferably be located near the corner
of a room- nearly 20cm away from the corner.
– If there are two doors in a room, the doors should
preferably located in opposite walls, facing each
other
• Door frames are made of the following
materials.
– Timber – most commonly used
– Steel sections
– Aluminum sections – costlier and used mostly for
residential building
– Concrete – help in protecting termites
– Stone
• Sizes of Doors: it is a common practice the
height of a door should not be less than 1.8m
to 2m. The width of a door should be such
that two persons can pass through it walking
shoulder to shoulder.
• Doors for residential building:
– External door… (1.0m x 2m) to (1.1m to 2m)
– Internal door … (0.9m x 2m) to (1m x2m)
– Doors for bathrooms and water closets… (0.7m x
2m) to (0.8m x 2m)
• Public buildings, such as schools, hospitals,
libraries etc:
– 1.2m x2m
– 1.2m x 2.1m
– 1.2m x 2.25m
• Doors commonly used in buildings are
classified into the following types, depending
upon:
– Type of material used
– Arrangement of different components of the
door
– Method of construction
– Nature of working operation
 WINDOWS

• A window is comprised of two parts:

– Window frame and
– Sashes or shutter frame
• Window frames
– are fixed to the opening in the wall, by means of
suitable holdfasts.
• The sashes or shutter frames
– are fixed to the window frames by means of suitable
hinges.
• Window frame has sill at the bottom, unlike
doors.
• The function of window is:
– To admit light and air to the room
– To give a view to the outside
• The selection of size, shape, location of
windows in a room depends upon the
following factors
– Size of the room
– Location of the room
– Utility of the room
– Direction of the wall
– Direction of wind
– Climatic conditions such as humidity, temperature
– Requirements of exterior view
– Architectural treatment to the exterior of the
building
• Based on the above factors, the following
thumb rules are in use:
– Breadth of window = 1/8 (width of room + height
of room)
– The total area of window-openings should
normally vary from 10 to 20% of the floor area of
the room.
– The area of window opening should be at least
one square meter for every 30 to 40 cubic meter
of inside content of the room.
– In public buildings, the minimum area of windows
should be 20% of floor area.
• For sufficient natural light, the area of glazed
panels should at least be 8 to 10% of the floor
area.
 Types of windows

• Windows are classified as follows:

– Based on the nature of operational movements of
shutters
– Materials used for construction
– Manner of fixing and their location
– Fixed windows - Clerestory windows
– Pivoted windows - Corner windows
– Double hung windows - Dormer windows
– Sliding windows - Cable windows
– Casement windows - Lantern windows
– Sash windows - Sky-lights
– Louvered windows - Ventilators
– Metal windows - Combined windows
and ventilators
– Bay windows
ROOFS AND ROOF
COVERINGS
 ROOFS AND ROOF COVERINGS
• A roof is the upper most part of a building
which is constructed to protect the building so
that rain, wind, heat, snow fall etc may not
damage the building.
• A roof consists of structural elements which
support roof coverings. The structural elements
may be trusses, portals, beams, slabs, etc.
• Roof coverings may be Aluminum coated
sheets, galvanized iron sheets, wooden
shingles, slabs, tiles etc.
• Requirements of a Roof:
– adequate strength 8 stability
– effectively protect the building against rain, wind,
sun
– should be water proof
– adequate thermal insulation and fire resistant
• Types of Roofs
– Pitched or sloping roofs:
• They have sloping top surface
• -Suitable in areas where rainfall/ snow fall is heavy.
– Pitched roofs are basically of the following forms
• Lean –to-roof
• Gable roof
• Hip roof
• Gambrel roof
• Deck roof
• Pitched roofs may be broadly classified in to the
following [single roofs, Double or purlin roofs,
trussed roofs]

• Various forms of Slopping roofs

• a) Single roof:
– Lean- to-roof:- This is the simplest type of sloping
roof in which rafters slope to one side.
– Couple roof:
- This type of roof is formed by couple or pair of
rafters to both sides of the ridge of the roof.
• It is used when the span is limited to 3.6m, because it
has a tendency to spread out at the feet and thrust out
the walls supporting the wall plates
• Couple close roof
– The ends of the couple of common rafters is
connected by horizontal member called a tie
beam, to prevent the rafters from spreading and
thrusting out of the wall.
– There is one tie beam for each pair of rafters.
– This type of roof is economically suitable for spans
up to 4.24m
Couple Close Roof
• Collar beam roof
– When the span increase or when the load is more,
the rafters of the couple close roof have the
tendency to bend. This is avoided by raising the tie
beam and fixing it at 1/3 to ½ of the vertical
height from wall plate to the ridge; the raised
beam is known as the collar beam (collar tie)
• This roof is suitable for spans up to5m
Collar Beam Roof
• Collar and scissors roof
• The two collar beams, crossing each other to have an
appearance of scissors is provided

Collar and scissors roof

• b). Double or purl in roofs
• These roofs have two basic elements
– rafters and
– Purlins
• The purlins give intermediate support to the
rafters and are supported on end walls.
• Each rafter is thus supported at three points.
• at the bottom, on the wall through wall plate
• at the top, by the ridge
• at the center, by purlin
• For larger roofs, two or more purlins may be provided to
support each other
Rafter and Purlin Roofs
• C) Turssed roofs
– when the span of the roof exceeds 5m and where
there are no inside walls to support the purlins,
framed structures known as trusses are provided
at suitable interval along the length of the room.
– Spacing is generally limited to 3m for wooden
trusses
– In this system, the roof consists of three elements
• i) rafters to support the roofing materials
• ii) purlins to provide intermediate support to rafters
• iii) trusses to provide support to the ends of purlins
• The various types of trusses in use are
– king-post truss
– Queen-post truss
– Combination of king post and Queen post
– steel trusses
– composite trusses
• King post truss
– Consists of the following components.
• lower tie beam
• two inclined principal rafters
• two struts
• king post
– The principal rafters support the purlins.
– The purlins support the closely-spaced common
rafters which have the same slope as the principal
rafters.
– The common rafters support the roof covering.
– The king post prevents the fie beam from sagging
at its center of the span.
– The spacing of the king-post truss is limited to3m
center to center and the truss is suitable for spans
varying from 5 to 8 meters..
• Queen post truss
– A Queen post truss differs from a king post truss in
having two vertical posts, rather than one. The
vertical posts are known as Queen-posts, the tops of
which are connected by a horizontal piece, known as
straining beam.
– The straining sill is introduced on the tie beam
between the Queen post to counteract the thrust
from inclined struts which are in compression.
– The trusses are suitable for spans up to 12m.
• Combination of Queen 8 king post
– For spans greater than 12m, the queen post truss
can be strengthened by one more upright
member, called princess post to each side
– This type of truss is suitable for spans up to 18m
 Roof coverings for pitched roofs
• A) Thatch covering:
- The cheapest roof covering, commonly used in
villages.
- It is very light and is highly combustible (burnable)
- Unstable during strong winds, liable to decay
- It harbors rats and other burrowing animals and
gives bad smell in rainy season.
- In order to drain the roof effectively, a minimum
of 450 is kept.
• B) Wood shingle roofing
- Shingles are thin slabs of wood used to cover
roofs
 C) Tile roofing
- Tile roofing is one of the oldest, and is still
preferred for residential buildings.
- Tiles are manufactured by a process similar
to that of bricks.
- Different types of tiles are generally used.
- plain or flat tiles
- Curved or pan tiles
- Spanish tiles
-Italian tiles etc.
• D) Asbestos –Cement sheets (A.C sheets)
- Asbestos cement sheets are now increasingly
becoming popular for industrial buildings,
factories, sheds, cinema houses etc.
- They are light in weight, tough, durable, water
and fire resistant and they are available in
bigger units than tiles, and hence supporting
frame work (ground work) is also cheaper,
easier and lighter.
-
• Do not require any protective paint
- Ac sheets are manufactured from asbestos
fiber (about 15%) and Portland cement.
- Asbestos is a silky fibrous mineral existing in
veins of metamorphized volcanic rocks.
• Galvanized Iron corrugated sheets (G.I
sheets)
- They are made of iron sheets which are
galvanized with zinc to protect them from
rusting action of water and wet weather.
- are stronger than asbestos-cement sheets
and manufactured in various thickness.
- The Commonly used thickness of G.C.I are
24,26,28,30,32 gauge.
Finishing
 Building Finishing : Plastering ,
Pointing
• Plastering :
• Plastering is the process of covering rough surface of
wall, columns, ceilings and other building components
with thin coat of plastic mortar to form a smooth
durable surface.
• objectives of plastering:
– To protect the external surface against penetration of rain
water and other atmospheric agencies.
– To give Smooth surface in which dust and dirt can not lodge.
– To give decorative effect
– To protect surfaces against vermin.
– To conceal (hide) inferior materials or defective workmanship.
• A good plaster should be:
– easily adhere (stick able ) to the back ground and
remain adhered during all variations in seasons
and other atmospheric Conditions
– hard & durable
– With good workability
– possible to apply all weather Condition
– effectively check penetration of moisture.
• Types of Mortars for plastering
– The selection of type of plaster depends up on the
following factors.
• Availability of binding materials,
• durability,
• finishing requirements and
• weather conditions.
• Lime mortar:
– The lime used for plastering may be either fat lime or
hydraulic line. However, fat line is preferred since it
yields good putty after slacking.
– Hydraulic line Contains particles which slake very
slowly as it comes in contact with atmospheric
moisture; such slaking may even continue for 6 to 8
months.
– If unsalked particles remain in such a plaster,
blister(swelling) are formed during the process of slow
slaking. Thus, the plastered surface gets damaged.
– Hydraulic line yields harder and stronger surface
– The mix proportion (i.e. lime :sand) varies from 1:3 to
1:4 for fat line and 1:2 for hydraulic lime.
• Cement mortar:
– is the best mortar for external plastering work an
as it is practical non absorbent.
– much stronger than line mortar
– The mix proportion (cement: sand) may Vary
from 1:4 to 1:6
– The sand used for plastering should be clean,
Coarse and angular. Before mixing water, dry
mixing is thoroughly done. When water is mixed,
the mortar should be used with 30 minutes of
mixing, well before initial setting takes place.
• Lime- Cement mortar
– has both the properties of lime mortar as well as
cement mortar.
– Addition of lime to cement imparts adequate
plasticity resulting in smooth plastered surface.
– Mix proportions (cement: lime: sand) generally
used are : 1:1:6, 1:1:8 or 1:2:8
 Number of coats of plaster.

• The back ground over which plastering is to be

done depend up on the type of wall
construction, such as random rubble (R.R)
masonry, brick masonry, and cement block
work etc.
• Different thickness of plaster is required for
different types of back grounds.
• Plastering is, therefore, can be applied in one,
two, or three coats.
• Plaster in one coat is applied only for inferior
work, since it causes heavy shrinkage and
Consequent cracking.
• Generally, lime plaster is applied in three coats
while cement plaster is applied in two coats.
• The first coat (under-coat or rendering
coat)provide means of Leveling uneven
surface. 10 to15 mm thick.
• The second coat (floating coat) serve as an
intermediate coat. Average thickness is 6 to
9mm.
• The third coat (setting or finishing coat)provider
smooth surface and is about 2 to 3 mm thick.
• If plastering is done in a single coat only, its
thickness should lie between 6 and 12mm.
• Methods of plastering
– preparation of back ground:
– For plastering new surfaces, all masonry joints
should be raked to a depth of 10mm in brick
masonry 15mm in stone masonry for providing
key to the plaster.
– All mortar droppings and dust should be removed
with the help of stiff wire brush. Any unevenness
is Leveled before the first coat is applied
– Keep the back ground wet before applying the
first coat during plastering.
• Special Materials used in Plastering
– Special materials are used in plastering or over the
plastered surface to meet some specific
requirements of the finished surface; such as to
increase durability, for better appearance, fire
proofing, sound insulation etc.
1.Acoustic plaster
• Contains gypsum mixtures applied as final coat in
finishing the plastered surface
• Such coat under goes chemical reaction resulting in
production of gas bubbles and consequent formation
of tiny openings in the coat. These honey-Combed
minute openings absorb sound.
• used in halls, auditoriums
 Defects in plastering
1. Blistering of plastered surface
• This is the formation of small patches of plaster swelling
out beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late
slaking of lime particles in the plaster.
2. Cracking: :
• Cracking consists of formation of cracks or fissures in the
plaster work resulting from the following reasons.
– Imperfect preparation of background Structural defects in
building
– Discontinuity of surface Movements in the background due to
its thermal expansion or rapid drying
– Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion
or shrinkage.
– Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat
– Faulty workmanship. Cracking
3. Crazing
• It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears
on the surface
4. Efflorescence
• It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears
on the surface due to presence of salts in plaster-
making materials as well as building materials like
bricks, sand, cement etc and even water.
• removed by dry brushing and washing the surface
repeatedly.
5. Flaking
• formation of very loose mass of plastered surface,
due o poor bond between successive coats.
6. peeling (detaching)
• complete dislocation of some portion of plastered
surface, results in patch.
 Pointing
• The term pointing is applied to the finishing of
mortar joints in masonry
• Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 to
20mm and filling it with better quality mortar in
desired shape.
• Pointing is generally recommended for the finishing of
exposed external wall.
• Advantage of pointing.
• Protects the joint from adverse effect of atmospheric
actions.
• hides defective workmanship.
• Imparts better appearance to exposed surface.
• Types of pointings
1. Flush Pointing:
• Flush pointing The pointing may be level as in flush
pointing, which is made by wiping over the finished
pointing with the trowel or piece of rough cloth. Does
not give good appearance. But it is durable as it does not
provide any space for accumulation of dust, water etc
2. Keyed or grooved pointing:
• In this type mortar is first up flush with the face if wall. A
semi circular notch is formed by a tool know as pointer.
This type of pointing gives as attractive appearance to
the surface. This type is mostly used for superior type
work, particularly for vertical joints of walls.
3. Recessed pointing:
– Recessed joints are not suitable for buildings in
exposed situations because they do not readily
shed water. This is done by pressing mortar back
from edges by 5 mm or more. Face of pointing is
kept vertical. Only bricks with good frost resistance
should be used with recessed joints. Gives good
appearance.
4. Weathered Pointing:
– Weathered Pointing V’ shaped projections are
made.
5. V pointing or bucket handle :
– Formed by forming a ‘V’ groove.
6. Beaded pointing:
– Formed by steel or iron edge. Gives good
appearance but liable to damage easily.
7. Tuck pointing :
– Groove of 5 mm width and 3 mm depth is
prepared. It is filled with white cement or putty.
 TIMBER

• Wood has always been a prominent material

in the construction industry for many reasons.
• It is easily worked,
• has durability and beauty.
• It has great ability to absorb shocks from sudden loads.
• In addition, wood has freedom from rust and
corrosion,
• is comparatively light in weight, and is adaptable to a
countless variety of purposes.
• Trees growing in Ethiopia can broadly be
classified into two main groups:
– Endogenous or inward growing trees such as
palms and bamboos, which have so far little use in
engineering.
– Exogenous or outward growing trees which make
the bulk of the commercially available material for
building purpose.
• The Tree Structure
– On examining the cross-section of the trunk of an
exogenous tree, we perceive several parts, which
are briefly described below.
– Pith: It is the first formed, small in diameter (1-3 mm),
innermost portion of the stem of a tree. It consists entirely of
soft cellular tissues. At young age of the tree it contains fluid
and nourishes the plant. It gradually becomes inactive as the
tree grows old but remains part of its firm and strong support.

– Bark: It is the outermost portion of a tree. The outer bark

protects the tree from heat and mechanical harm. The inner
bark protects the bast and cambium from injury and also
supplies food to these parts where it is needed most.
– Bast (Phloem): It carries food from leaves down stem to feed
cambium and manufacture wood.
– Cambium: Just inside the inner bark and bast, it is a thin layer
of cells capable of division, forming new cells
towards the wood (xylem), the bast (phloem) cells towards
the bark.
– Annual Rings (growth rings): So called because they are
arranged in concentric circles
around the pith, each ring being added every year. They
consist of minute tubular or fibrous cells (including vessels
and fibers) tightly cemented together.
– Vessels: These are conducting tissues, carrying sap from the
roots to the leaves of the tree.
– Fibers: Positioned between and around vessels, they support
the tree.
– Rays (Modularly Rays): These are thin parallel radial bands,
generally light colored, which cross the tree trunk from the
pith to the cambium layer. They hold together the annual
rings and also store and conduct food horizontally.
Growth Structure
Cross-section of tree
 Classification and Characteristics
• Timber available from exogenous trees is
further divided into two main classes as
follows:
• Softwood: It is produced from the gymnosperms, the
coniferous trees such as pines and spruces, which have
characteristic needle-like leaves.
• Hardwood: It is produced from one group of the
angiosperms, known as dicotyledons, which are the
broad-leafed trees, such as oak, beech and ash. The
temperate zone hardwoods are generally deciduous,
while most tropical hardwoods retain their leaves all
year round.
 Contrasting Characteristics of Hardwood and Softwood

Hardwood Softwood
 Relatively heavy  Generally light in weight
 Relatively dark in colour  Generally light in colour
 The annual rings are not distinct  Annual rings are distinct
 Many contain materials, for example  Has straight fibres with soft and
silica, which makes the wood hard and regular texture
difficult to work upon.  Comparatively weaker and splits
Close grained, strong and durable easily
 Strong also in shear  Strong in tension
 Contains acid
 Some contain resins and/or oils
which interfere with the hardening of
paints
 Seasoning and Preservation
• There are two methods of seasoning timber:
– natural air seasoning and
– kiln drying.
– In natural air seasoning, the timber is stacked in the open air
or in open-sided sheds in such a way as to promote drying
without artificial assistance. The timber stack is supported
clear of the ground to prevent rain splash, and adjacent
pieces in each layer are kept separate to provide air
circulation by means of spacers or sticks which are generally
about 25mm square. If the timber is stacked in the open a top
cover should be used to keep off rain, or snow, and protect
the stack from direct sunshine. Air seasoning is a cheap
method with very little loss in quality of timber if done
properly but it is relatively slow process.
– Kiln drying is done in chambers equipped with
heating and humidifying arrangements. This
process which takes from few hours to a couple of
days can be done either in stationary kilns or by
stacking timber to the kiln or in progressive kilns
where the timber is moved from one end of the
kiln to the other end. Since it is done scientifically
by controlling the amount of temperature and
humidity of the circulating air, kiln drying gives
better seasoned timber in relatively very short
time. However, the method is more expensive as
it involves longer initial investment and running
cost.
 Conversion of Timber
• Besides its usage as structural member in
buildings, timber can be used to prepare
architectural or finishing materials such as
veneers, plywood etc.
• Veneers are thin sheets of wood, from 0.5mm
to 5mm that are peeled off, sliced, cut or sawn
from a log of wood. Since they have usually
attractive appearance they are used as
finishing materials or cover to timber surfaces
of inferior quality.
• Veneers are used for making plywood and
laminboard. In the plywood the different plies are
arranged in such a way that the grains of the veneers
are at right angles to each other. This arrangement
gives the plywood considerable strength in
compression, tension as well as bending.
• Wood wastes obtained from saw mills; inferior
timber or small logs are usually used to manufacture
chipboard (hard board). In this case, the dried
material is converted into fibres. The fibres are then
mixed with binders (Synthetic resins) and pressed
into 10 to 25mm thick boards in hydraulic presses.
Such boards are used as ceiling boards, partition wall
etc.
 Defects in Timber

• Defects can occur in timber at various stages,

principally during the growing period and
during the conversion and seasoning process.
Any of these defects can cause trouble in
timber in use either by reducing its strength or
marring its appearance.
• Natural defects
– Natural defects occur during the growing period
and some of these are as shown in figure 2.6
below
Growth defects