SUPERSTRUCTURE WALLS

 The walls built above ground floor slab are known as superstructure walls.
These walls are mainly used to enclose a space, carry and transfer the
weight 0f the roof to the foundation walls.
 Walls may be classified either by their position in a building or by their
functions.
By their functions walls are classified as either load-bearing or non-load
bearing walls.
i. Load bearing walls are those that carry imposed loads , such as floor
sand roofs in addition to their own weight.
ii. Non-load bearing walls are those that carry only their own weight.
 By their position walls are classified as either external walls or internal
walls.
 Walls are of two types, solid or framed.
i. A solid wall is constructed either of blocks of bricks ,burnt clay, stone
or concrete laid in mortar with the blocks laid to overlap in some
form of what is called bonding.
ii. A framed wall is constructed from a frame of small sections of timber
or metal joint together to provide strength and rigidity over both
sides of which or between the members of the frame are fixed thin
panels of some material to fulfill the functional requirements of the
particular wall.
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Functions of walls
(A). External walls.
i. They enclose the space in a building.
They therefore define the extent of the built area.
ii. They support the weight above them.
These walls should therefore be strong enough to carry all the roof weight
and transfer it to the foundation walls.
 iii. They provide security to the occupants and their properties by keeping out
thieves, wild animals etc.

iv. They provide comfort.

To make the enclosed space comfortable to live in, the walls should exclude
rain, wind and minimize the effect of heat, cold and noise.

(B).Internal walls
 Internal wall divide enclosed space into rooms
It is in these rooms where different activities e.g. cooking, bathing, living,
studying are carried out without one activity interrupting the other.

Functional requirements of walls

i. Stability
ii. Strength
iii. Exclusion of rain
iv. Durability
v. Fire resistance
vi. Thermal properties
vii. Resistance to sound absorption and transmission

i. Stability
 The Stability of a wall may be affected by foundation movement, eccentric
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loads, lateral forces (wind) and expansion due to temperature and moisture
changes.
 Eccentric loads, that is those not acting on the centre of the thickness of
the wall, such as from floors, tend to overturn the walls where the wall
material such as bricks is weak in tension
 The greater the eccentricity of the load and the more slender the wall ,the
greater the tendency to bow.
 ii. Strength
 A wall should be designed to safely support its own weight ,wind loads and
loads imposed by floors and roofs.
 The strength of a wall depends on the strength of the materials of the wall
and the wall thickness.
 In general for a given material, the thicker the wall, the greater the loads it
can carry.
iii. Exclusion of rain
 The ability of a wall to exclude rain and wind will depend to some extent on
its exposure to wind.
 The behavior of a wall in excluding wind and rain will depend on the nature
of the material used in the construction of the wall and how they are put
together.
iv. Durability
 A block wall of sound bricks, stones or blocks laid in mortar should last for
the life of the building and should require little maintenance and repair if
any.
v. Fire resistance
 The materials used in the construction of the wall s should restrict flame
spread.
vi. Thermal properties
 Walls should provide adequate insulation against excessive loss or gain of
heat ,have adequate thermal storage capacity and the internal face of the
walls should be at a reasonable temperature
vii. Resistance to sound transmission and absorption
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The most effective insulation against airborne sound is a dense barrier such
as a solid wall which absorbs the energy of the airborne sound waves.
 Walling materials
i. Kneaded earth
ii. Sun-dried earth blocks
iii. Burnt bricks
iv. Sand-crete blocks
v. Concrete blocks
vi. Natural stones
vii. Timber
viii. G.C.I. sheets
Some of these materials fulfill some of the functions of walls better than
others e.g.
a) While a wall built of G.C.I sheets will enclose a space, it will not provide
enough security and comfort to the occupants
It is easier to break into, uncomfortably hot in hot weather and cold during
cold weather.
b) Kneaded earth provides comfort in all weather.
However if not protected the wall will be spoiled by rain and also be easier
to break into.

Forms of wall construction

i. Monolithic walls
 A monolithic wall is a continuous solid wall of concrete, that is, one
uninterrupted material such as concrete which is poured wet and hardens
into a solid monolithic (one piece of stone)
ii. Masonry walls
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 This is solid wall constructed either of blocks, bricks or stones laid in mortar
with the blocks laid to overlap in some form of what is called bonding.
 Kneaded earth walls
 The kneaded earth walls are very common in the Kenyan traditional
dwellings.
Kneaded earth walls are made of well prepared earth.
This earth is dug out, some water is added and the mixture is kneaded to a
plastic state.
 The kneaded earth is squeezed manually between the timber laths which
are fixed horizontally on vertical timber poles.
 The surface is finally finished relatively smooth.
To make the mixture stronger, grass, reeds or any other fibrous material is
added during kneading.
 When the kneaded earth hardens and dries, it forms a relatively solid
strong wall.

Procedure of constructing kneaded earth walls

i. The poles are erected in a circular or rectangular shape.
ii. The laths are nailed or tied to the poles on both sides.
iii. The first mass of earth is squeezed between the laths the wall is then
allowed to harden for about 21 days during which time the earth will shrink
and develop cracks.
iv. After 21 days a coat of earth is applied on the wall surface to fill in cracks
and render the surface smooth.
v. This coat is left to dry for about 14 days or more depending on the weather
conditions.
vi. The final coat is the applied to achieve the required finish. A mixture if
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building sand and clay provides a very good final coat.

 Sometimes coloured earth may be used to give the required colour.

 Advantages of kneaded earth
i. It is cheap.
ii. It is locally available.
iii. It is easily handled by non-regular workers.
Disadvantages of kneaded earth
i. It tends to tear out if exposed to weather e.g. rain and strong winds.

NB. It is therefore important that walls constructed in kneaded earth be

protected from direct rain by projecting the eaves.

BLOCK WALL CONSTRUCTION

i. A string is stretched between the profiles to establish the face line.

 Using plumb bob the line is transferred to the concrete floor slab so as to
locate the position of the walls.
ii. Cement-sand screed is laid level on the position where external walls
are expected to be.
 Leveling is done by means of either water level or spirit level and a
straight edge.
 The position of internal and external walls is marked on the screed. The
screed is left to set for a minimum of 12 hours before a d.p.c.is laid.
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 iii. D.p.c. is laid to receive the walls.
When laying d.p.c. care must be taken not to puncture it.
 Where a joint appears along the wall, a lap of not less than 150mm should
be maintained to achieve a maximum barrier against moisture penetration.
 The lap at the intersection of the walls should be equal to the wall
thickness.

iv. The mortar is spread and a corner block placed in position aligning it
using a plumb bob, plumb rule or a spirit level. Other corners are set in a
similar way.
 The level of the first corner block should be checked using a water level or
any other suitable leveling instruments.
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v. The corners are then built to a reasonable height with the ends either
toothed or raked back for bonding the infilling walls.
 vi. A line is stretched between the corners and the rest of the wall is then
built.

vii. This process is repeated until the required height is obtained.

 The minimum height for a domestic building is 2.5m
viii. When laying the last course it should be ensured that the course is level
and capable of receiving a wall plate.
 A wall plate is a horizontal timber piece fixed on top of walls using bolts and
hoop iron.
Its purpose is to receive the roof structure.
 The bolts or the hoop irons are fixed to the last courses of the wall at an
interval not more than 1.2m apart.
 The top of the course is rendered level by laying a thin layer of cement sand
screed.
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It is on this screed that the wall plate is placed and fixed using anchor bolts
or hoop irons.
 Bonding
 Walls are generally built with single units such as blocks, bricks, stones, etc.
These units are arranged in such a way that the walls will be strong and
have a good appearance.
 The strength is partly achieved by having staggered vertical joints.
This arrangement is known as bonding.
 Straight vertical joints make the walls weak when the wall is loaded the
portion carrying the load will tend to shear along the joint and eventually
the portion will sink.
 For the wall to achieve maximum strength, the joints should be filled with a
suitable mortar.
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  Stretcher bond is the mostly used bond in block work.
In this bond the wall consists of successive course of stretchers.
 Lap is half the unit length.
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