Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Construction Technology
Subject Code: CE-402
Semester: 4th
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Unit - 3
Masonry and Walls: Brick masonry, Bonds, Jointing, Stone masonry, casting and laying, masonry
construction, Brick cavity walls, code provisions regarding load bearing and non-load bearing walls.
Common defects in construction and their effect on strength and performance of walls, designed Brick
masonry, precast stone masonry block, Hollow concrete block, plastering and pointing, white and color
washing, distempering, dampness and its protection, Design of hollow block masonry walls. Doors,
Windows and Ventilators: Types based on material etc., size location, fittings, construction sunshades,
sills and jambs, RCC doors/windows frames. Stairs types, rule of proportionality etc., Repairs techniques
for masonry, walls, doors & windows.

Masonry is defined as the art of construction in which building units, such as clay bricks, sand-lime,
bricks, stones, Pre-cast hallow concrete blocks, concrete slabs, glass bricks, combination of some of
these building units etc are arranged systematically and bonded together to form a homogeneous mass
in such a manner that they can with stand point to other loads and transmit then through the mass
without fail or disintegration.

Masonry can be classified into the following categories

1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hallow block concrete masonry
4. Reinforced masonry
5. Composite masonry

These can be further sub-divided into varies types depending upon workmanship and type of materials
used.

Definitions of terms

 Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks stones

 Bed: the surface of a stone perpendicular to the line of pressure of (lower surface of bricks or

 Back: The inner surface of wall not exposed is called back. The material forming back is known as
stones in each course)

 Face: The exterior of the wall exposed to weather is known as face. The material used in the facing
backing

of wall is known as fa i g’
 Hearting: It is the interior portion of a wall between facing and backing
 Head: It is a brick or stone, which lies with its greatest length at right angles to the face of the

 Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with its congest side parallel to the face of the work
work.

 Bond: The method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied together
 Spalls: The chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry
 Quoins: The stones used for the corners of walls of structure
 Bat: It is a portion of a brick cut across the width.
 Closer: It is the portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut
 Queen closer: it is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick length-wise into two portions
 King closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece between the

 Beveled closer: It is the portion of a brick in which the whole length of the brick is beveled for
centre of one end and the centre of one side.

maintaining half width at one end and full width at the other

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 Frog: It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the object of forming a

 Sill: It is a horizontal stone, concrete or wood, employed for the purpose of shedding off rain water
key for the mortar.

 Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or brick from the face of a wall to serve
from the face of wall immediately below the window opening

 Templates: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam to distribute load over a greater area.
as a support for wall plates

 Coping: It is the course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to prevent the seepage of

 Buttress: It is a sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended to strengthen the
water

wall against the thrust of a roof as shown in fig 4.1

Fig 4.1 Definitions of terms

Stone masonry: The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone
masonry where the stones are available in a abundance in nature, on cutting and dressing to
the proper shape, they provide an economical material for the construction of various building
components such as walls, columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.

Uses of stone masonry:

Stone masonry construction is used in
(i) Building foundations, dams, monumental structures
(ii) Building walls, piers, columns, pillars, light houses and
architectural works.
(iii) Arches, domes, lintels and beams
(iv) Roofs, flames, paving jobs
(v) Railway, ballast, black boards and electrical switch boards

Selection of stone for stone masonry:

The selection of stones for stone masonry depends upon
a. Availability
b. Ease of working
c. Appearance
d. Strength and stability
e. Polishing characteristics
f. Economy
g. Durability

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The table 4.1 given broadly outlines the different types of stones used for different purposes

S. No. Purpose Stones used

1. Heavy engineering works Granite, gneiss
Ex: stocks, break waters, light houses, bridges, piers
4.2. Buildings situated in industrial towns Granite and compact sandstone
3. Pavements, railway ballast, doors its and steps Granite slabs and
slate
4. Electrical switch board Marble slabs and
slate
5. Fire resistance works Compact sandstone
6. Carving and ornamental works Marble and late rite
7. Face work and architectural purposes Marble, granite closer gained
sand stone

Tools required for stone masonry construction:

Fig 4.2 Tools for Stone Masonry



Trowel : This is used to lift and spread mortar


Square: This is made of flat steel having each arm about 0.5m long


Plumb rule and bob: This is used to check the vertically of walls


Spirit level: this is used to chick the horizontality of walls


Line and pin: This is used to maintain the alignment of the work in progress


Bevel: The instrument used to set right angles


Pick axe: This is employed for dressing of rough stone and split the stones in the quarry


Crowbar: This is used to make stones in query


Chisels: They are used to dress stones


Spall hammer: This is heavy hammer used for rough dressing of stones


Mallet: The wooden hammer used for driving of wooded headed chisels


Iron hammer: This is used for carving of stones
Scrabbling hammer: This is used to break small projections of stones

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 Pitching tool: This is used to make the stones of required size

Subject: - Construction Technology Mr. Atulpal Singh Pawar

 Gauge: this is employed to dress stones for spring course, comics, coping etc
 Claw tool: This is employed for dressing the surface of stones
 Necker: This is employed to draw fine chisel lines on the stone surface
 Jumper: They are used for boring holes
 Wedge and feathers: They are employed for cutting the stones after they have been bored with jumper.
 Gad: A small steel wedge used for splitting of stones
 Drag: This is employed to level a stone surface
 Punch: This is employed to dress roughly the stones
 Handsaw: This is used to cut soft stones
 Cross-cut saw: This is used to cut hard stones
 Frame saw: This is used to cut large blocks of stones.

Masonry:
Masonry is art of construction in which buildings units bricks, stones etc are arranged

 The masonry is classified as

systematically and banded with cement & sand mixture

 Stone masonry
 Brick masonry
 Hallow Masonry
 Re-forced masonry
 Composite Masonry

The stone masonry is useful for foundations, dams, walls, piers, columns, arches, domes, lintels,
beams, roofs, floors, railway ballets, black boards and electrical switch boards

 Stone masonry is divided

(i) Rubble masonry


(ii) Ashlars masonry
The brick masonry is a unified mass obtained by systematically arrangement of laying brick and


bonded together with mortar.


The brick mortar generally the following types


Mud mortar


Cement mortar


(iii)Cement lime mortar


(iv) Lime Surkhi mortar
Bonding is a process of arranging bricks and mortars to tie them together in a mass of


brickwork


The bonds can be classified as


Stretcher bond


Header bond


English bond


Double Flemish bond


Single Flemish bond


Garden wall bond


Fading bond


Dutch bond


Raking bond
Zig Zag bond

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
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
English cross bond
Bonds in columns
(i) Brick on edge bond or soldier course
(ii) Bonds at junction and squint junction

Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction and degree of refinement in the surface
finish, the stone masonry can be classified broadly in the following two categories
1. Rubble masonry
2. Ashlars masonry

 The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable.
General principles in the stone masonry construction

 The pressure acting on stones should be vertical

 The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the requirements
 The heads and bond stones should not be of a dumb bell shape.
 In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the ends of girders, roof trusses etc large

 The beds of the stones and plan of the course should be at right angles to the slope in the case
flat stones should be used

 Wood boxing should be filled into walls having fine dressed stone work to protect it during
of sloping retaining wall

 The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the specified faces.
further construction

 The instruction work of stone masonry should be raised uniformly.

 The plumb bob should be used to check the vertically of erected wall
 The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and not the tensile

 The masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of work for a period of 4.2 to
stresses

 As per as possible broken stones or small stones chips should not used
3 weeks

 Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher level

 The masonry hearting should be properly packed with mortar and chips if necessary to avoid

 The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being sucked
hallows

1) Rubble masonry: In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly dressed having
wider joints. This can be further subdivided as uncared, coursed, random, dry, polygonal and bent.

 Uncoarsed rubble masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest and poorest form of stone masonry. The
stones used in this type of masonry very much vary in their shape and size and are directly obtained


from quarry. Uncoarsed rubble masonry can be divided into the following.


Uncoarsed random rubble


Uncoarsed squared rubble
U oarsed ra do ru le aso ry: The eak or ers a d edges are re o ed ith aso ’s
hammer. Generally, bigger stone blocks are employed at quoins and jambs to increase the strength
of masonry.

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
Fig 4.3 Uncoarsed random rubble masonry
Uncoarsed squared rubble: In this type the stone blocks are made roughly square with hammer.
Generally the facing stones are given hammer-dressed finish. Large stones are used as quoins. As
far as possible the use of chips in bedding is avoided as shown in 4.4.

Fig 4.4 Uncoarsed squared rubble masonry

(ii) Coursed random rubble: This type of masonry is commonly used in the construction
of low height walls of public buildings, residential buildings, abutment and piers of
ordinary bridges. The stones of 5 to 4.20cm size are used in each course as shown in fig
4.5.

Fig 4.5 Coursed Random Rubble

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(iii) Coursed squared rubble: This type of masonry is made up of hammer squared stones facing with
bonded backing of uncoarsed random rubble masonry. The stones employed in each course are of equal
height. The backing and facing construction should be carried simultaneously. In order to avoid thick
mortar joints, small chips may be used as shown in the fig 4.6.

 Built to regular course: In this type of stone masonry the uniform height stones are used in
Fig 4.6 Coursed Squared Rubble Masonry

horizontal layers not less than 13cm in height. Generally, the stone beds are hammered or chisel
dressed to a depth of at least 10cm from the face. The stones are arranged in such a manner so that
the vertical joints of two consecutive curse do not coincide with each other as shown in fig 4.7.


Fig 4.7 Built to regular courses
Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones are roughly dressed to an
irregular polygonal shape. The stones should be so arranged as to avoid long vertical joints in face
work and to break joints as much as possible. Small stone chips should not be used to support the
stones on the facing as shown in fig 4.8.

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 Plint rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the areas where the flint is available in
Fig. 4.8 Polygonal rubble masonry

plenty. The flint stones varying in thickness from 8 to 15cm and in length from 15 to 30cm are
arranged in the facing in the form of coursed or uncoarsed masonry as shown in fig 4.9.

 Dry rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the construction of retaining walls pitching
Fig 4.9 Plinth Rubble Masonry

earthen dams and canal slopes in the form of random rubble masonry without any mortar. The
hallow spaces left around stones should be tightly packed with smaller stone pieces as shown in fig
4.10.

Fig 4.10 Dry Rubble Masonry

2. Ashlars Masonry: This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine
joints of about 3mm thickness by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns. The backing of ashlars
masonry walls may be built of ashlars masonry or rubble masonry. The size of stones blocks should be in
proportion to wall thickness. The various types of masonry can be classified under the following

 Ashlars fine
categories as shown in fig 4.11 to fig 4.13.

 Ashlars rough

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 Ashlars rock or quarry faced

Subject: - Construction Technology Mr. Atulpal Singh Pawar

 Ashlars facing
 Ashlars chamfered
 Ashlars block in course

Fig 4.11 Ashlars Fine Masonry

Fig 4.12 Ashlars chamfered Masonry

Fig 4.13 Ashlars Facing

 Brick masonry:

Brick masonry is a unified mass obtained by systematic arrangement of laying bricks and bonding
together with mortar. Brick is a building unit of hard inorganic clay material of size which can be
conveniently handled. The brick masonry is used in foundations, walls, columns, buttresses, retaining
structures window sells, jambs, corbels, copings ornamental brickwork, circular brickwork, fire places,
flumes, tall chimneys, cavity walls, thresholds, culverts, steps, floors, arches etc. The strength of brick
masonry works depends upon the quality of bricks and type of mortar used.

 Mud mortar
Generally mortars are following types used for brick masonry

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 Cement mortar
Subject: - Construction Technology Mr. Atulpal Singh Pawar

 Cement lime mortar

 Lime Surkhi mortar

 Good brick masonry should utilize bricks, which are sound, hard, well burnt and tough with
General principles in brick masonry construction:

 The bricks should be compact, homogeneous, free form holes, cracks, flaws, air-bubbles and
uniform color, shape and size.

 In the brickwork, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing upwards
stone lumps and soaked in water for at least two hours before use

 The brick courses should be laid truly horizontal and should have truly vertical joints
 As far as possible the use of brick – bats should be discouraged
 As far as possible the brick wall should be raised uniformly less than 1.5m in day with proper

 When the mortar is green the face joints should be racked to a depth of 14.2 to 19mm in order
bond.

 In order to ensure continuous bond between the old and the new, the wall should be stopped
to have a proper key for plastering or pointing.

 Finished brickwork should be cured for a period of 4.2 to 3 weeks for lime mortar and 1 to 4.2
with a toothed end.

 In order to carry out the brickwork at higher level, single scaffolding is used.
weeks for cement mortar

Types of brick bonds:

Bonding is a process of arranging bricks and mortars to tie them together in a mass of brickwork. It
should have a minimum of vertical joints in any part of the work.


Characteristics of brick bond or rules for bonding:


The brick masonry should have bricks of uniform shape and size
For satisfactory bondage the lap should be one-fourth of the brick along the length of the wall


and half brick across thickness of the wall


The brick bats use should be discouraged


The vertical joints in the alternate courses should coincides with the centre line of the stretcher
The alternate courses the centre line of header should coincide with the centre line of


stretcher, in course below or above it.
The stretcher should be used only in the facing while hearting should be done in the headers
only

 Stretcher bond
Classifications of bonds: The bonds can be classified as follows:

 Header bond
 English bond
 Double Flemish bond
 Single Flemish bond
 Garden wall bond
 Facing bond
 Dutch bond
 Raking bond
 Zigzag bond
 English cross bond
 Bonds in columns

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 Brick on edge bond or soldier course

Subject: - Construction Technology Mr. Atulpal Singh Pawar

 Bonds at junction and squint junction

Stretcher bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their lengths in the direction of the wall.
This pattern is used only for wall having thickness of 9cm only as shown in fig 4.14.

Fig 4.14 Stretcher Bond

Header bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their ends towards the face of the wall. This
arrangement is suitable for one brick wall of curved wall and footings for better load distribution as
Shown in fig 11.15

Fig 4.15 Header Bond

English bond: In this type of bond alternate course of headers and stretchers are laid. It is necessary to
place queen closer in the heading course for breaking the joints vertically. The different english bonds
are

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as shown in fig 4.16 and 4.17.

Fig 4.16 English Bond

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Fig 4.17 Alternate arrangements for various wall thicknesses in English Bond

Double Flemish bond: In this type, alternate heads and stretchers are laid in each course. The facing and
backing are of the same appearance brickbats and queen closers are used. The double Flemish bond is as
shown in fig 4.18.

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Fig 4.18 Double Flemish Bond

Single Flemish bond: This type of bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing and English bond
backing in each course. This type of construction partially possesses the strength of English bond, and
appearance of Flemish bond. As this type of bond requires minimum thickness of 1 ½ bricks so it cannot
be used for walls having thickness less than 1½ bricks. The fig 4.19 shows the single Flemish bond.

Fig 4.19 Single Flemish Bond

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Garden wall bond: This type of bond is employed for the construction of garden walls, compound walls,
boundary walls etc. This wall bond can be both English as well as Flemish as shown in the fig 4.20 & 4.21.

Fig 4.20 English Garden Wall Bond

Fig 4.21 Flemish Garden Wall

Facing bond: In this type of bond bricks of different thickness are used in the facing and backing of the
wall. In this case, a header course is placed after several stretcher courses. In this type of bond, the
distance between the successive heading courses is equal to common multiple of thickness of backing
and facing bricks.

Dutch bond: This is the modified form of English bond. The corners of the wall provided with dutch
bond are quite strong. The alternate courses in this type of bond are headers and stretchers. In stretcher
course ¾ bat is used as quoin. A header is placed next to the ¾ bat in every alternate stretcher course as
shown in the fig 4.22.

Fig 4.24 Dutch Bond

Raking bond: In this type of bond alternate courses are placed in different directions to get maximum
strength in the wall. The racking courses are laid to certain interval along the height of the wall in very
thick wall having number of headers more than the no.
of stretchers between the facing and backing. Thus the raking course rectifies the defect of low
longitudinal, stiffness in thick wall. This is of two types a. Herring bone bond (placed at 450 in both
direction) b. Diagonal bond as shown in fig 4.23.

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Fig 4.23 Herring Bone Bond

Zigzag bond: This type of bond very much similar to herring bone bond. The only difference is that
bricks are laid in zigzag way and used for paving the brick floor as shown in fig 4.24

Fig 4.24 Zigzag Bond

English cross bond: This type of bond is aesthetically more sound and posses greater strength than
English bond. In this bond every alternate stretcher course has a header placed next to the quolin
stretcher and rest of the details are similar to English bond as shown in fig 4.25

Fig 4.25 English Cross Bond

Brick on edge bond or soldier course: In this type of bond, the bricks are laid on edge. The bricks are
placed as headers and stretchers in alternate courses in such a manner that headers are placed on bed
and the stretchers are placed an edge forming a continuous cavity. This bond is weak in strength but
economical.

Bonds in columns: Generally English bond or double Flemish bond are used for column construction.
In case of circular or octagonal construction molded bricks are used. The various arrangements of bricks
in different columns shapes are as shown in fig 4.26.

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Fig 4.26 Bonds in columns

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Fig 4.27 Columns in Double Flemish bond

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Bonds at junction: When two walls meet or intersect each other, the meeting point is known as
junction
(i) For tee junction- English or double Flemish is used as shown in fig 4.28.
(ii) For cross junctions – English bond is used as shown in fig. 4.29

Fig 4.28 Bonds in Tee-Junction

Fig 4.29 Cross Junctions in English bond

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CAVITY WALLS:

Cavity walls consist of two 'skins' separated by a hollow space (cavity). The skins are commonly masonry
such as brick or concrete block. Masonry is an absorbent material, and therefore will slowly draw
rainwater or even humidity into the wall, as well as from the inside of the house as from outside. The
cavity serves as a way to drain water back out through weep holes at the base of the wall system or
above windows. The weep holes allow wind to create an air stream through the cavity and the stream
removes evaporated water from the cavity to the outside. Usually weep holes are created by
intentionally leaving several vertical joints, also open head joints, open about two meters apart at the
base of in every story. Weep holes are also placed above windows to prevent dry rot of a wooden
window frame. A cavity wall with masonry as both inner and outer skins is more commonly referred to
as a double Wythe masonry wall.

Fig 4.30 Cavity Walls

MASONRY CODES REVIEWED IN THIS STUDY

A brief description and major highlights of the various codes that have been reviewed is presented
below. A summary of key provisions of these codes related to design approach.

Building Code Requirements For Masonry Structures (ACI 530-04.2/ASCE 5-04.2/TMS 404.2-04.2)
This code is produced by the joint efforts of American Concrete Institute, the Structural Engineering
Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers and The Masonry Society. The Code covers the design
and construction of masonry structures and is accompanied with a Commentary on the Building code
requirements. The code provides minimum requirements for the structural design and construction of
masonry units bedded in mortar using both allowable stress design as well as limit state design (strength
design) for unreinforced as well as reinforced masonry. The topic on strength design is a new addition to
the previous edition of this code (ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 404.2-99). In strength design, more
emphasis is laid on reinforced masonry than unreinforced masonry. An empirical design method
applicable to buildings meeting specific location and construction criteria is also included.

International Building Code 4.2000

The International Building Code 4.2000 (ICC 4.2000) is designed to meet the need for a modern, up-to-
date building code addressing the design of building systems through requirements emphasizing
performance. This model code encourages international consistency in the application of provisions and
is available for adoption and use by jurisdictions internationally. The provisions of this code for the
design of masonry members have been heavily borrowed from ACI 530-04.2/ASCE 5-04.2/TMS 404.2-
04.2.

New Zealand Standard – Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Masonry Structures (NZS 44.230:
Part 1:1990)

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This Standard was prepared under the direction of the Building and Civil Engineering Divisional
Committee for the Standards Council, established under the Standards Act 1988. The content of this
Code is largely dictated by seismic considerations and is intended to provide a satisfactory structural
performance for masonry structures during a major earthquake. Minimum reinforcing requirements for
different structural systems and the reinforcing and separation of non-structural elements will limit non-
structural damage during moderate earthquakes. The design philosophy adopted throughout this code is
strength design using reinforced masonry only. The Code has been set out in two parts, Code and
Commentary. This code contains cross-references to NZS 3101, the primary code for the seismic design
of structure.

This code was published by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and is to be used with
the National Application Document (NAD) of member countries. This code specifies a general basis for
the design of buildings and civil engineering works in unreinforced and reinforced masonry made with
clay and concrete masonry units laid in mortar. Limit state design method has been adopted throughout
this code. However, Euro code 6 does not cover the special requirements of seismic design. Provisions
related to such requirements are given in Euro code 8: Design of structures in seismic regions. The
designer should consider the relative contribution of concrete infill and masonry in resisting load and,
where the concrete infill makes a much greater contribution to the load resistance than the masonry,
Euro code 4.2 should be used and the strength of masonry should be ignored.

Indian Standard – Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry (IS: 1905-1987)
The Indian Standard on masonry design was first published in 1960 and later on revised in 1969, 1980
and 1987. The current third version, published in Review of Design Codes for Masonry Buildings IITK-
GSDMA-EQ10-V1.0 4 1987, was reaffirmed in 1998. The provisions of this code are very similar to those
of BS 564.28: Part 1:1978. A separate handbook to this code, SP 4.20(S&T): 1991, is also available. This
Indian Standard provides recommendations for structural design aspect of load bearing and non-load
bearing walls using unreinforced masonry only. Design procedure adopted throughout the code is
allowable stress design, along with several empirical formulae. The code refers to IS: 434.26 for
strengthening unreinforced masonry building for seismic resistance and does not provide any calculation
for the design of reinforcement.

Construction defects are always the key concern of the construction industry. Different constructed
facilities generate different types of defects and demands different levels and types of quality depending
on the function, system, types and material used. Various systems have been designed to eliminate
defects during construction operation. Defect cost is defined as the value of resource expenditure for
rework. Various factors are measured like rework time, materials and equipments to correct the defects.
Time is lost in waiting as a consequence of defects. Defective building construction not only contributes
to the final cost of the product but also to the cost of maintenance which can be considerable. The cost
is calculated irrespective of who is going to pay. Defective construction may lead to complete failure of
structure. The construction industry all around the world is getting modern, advance and growing day by
day with the help of information technology age. Defects can affect success of construction project
significantly. More specifically, it has major impact on construction cost, construction time, and
productivity and sustainability aspects also on customer satisfaction

DEFECTS:
Following are the consequences of defects;

 Dissatisfied Customer
 Extra cost borne by company
 Delay in completion

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Subject: - Construction Technology Mr. Atulpal Singh Pawar

This paper aims to contribute to knowledge of the defect profile of residential buildings regarding the
defect number, type, location, severity and responsible trades. It also identifies various factors causing
construction defects and hence to find justifying measures to reduce defects. Therefore, eliminating
defects and maintaining good quality have an important cost benefit for the society. Although it may be
predictable that defects in a building occur through general wear and tear, defects due to human errors
in the construction of a home should be minimized. The topic for paper work was selected with an
intention that the findings from the literature review, questionnaire survey and case studies will provide
a better solution for problems relating to defects in construction projects that established in the
construction industry. Study was carried out through structured questionnaire focusing major parties i.e.
technical persons, Labours, contractors, customer who buys constructed products etc.

Types of Defects

1. Structural defect:
Structural defect means any defect in a structural element of a building that is attributable to defective
design, defective or faulty workmanship or defective material and sometimes any combination of these.
Building structure includes earth retaining walls, columns, beams and flat slabs. Review Paper on
Construction Defects. DOI: 10.9790/1684-14.24.238891 www.iosrjournals.org 89 | Page Structural defect
can be categorized as cracks in foundations (Substructure), cracks in floor or slabs (superstructure), and
cracks in walls (superstructure). These defects can be caused by improper soil analysis, inappropriate site
selection, and the use of defective materials. Most of the structural problem can be avoided by implying
the exact and detail of the design and planning. Structural defects in a building can occur over time due
to deterioration, wear and tear, overloading, and poor maintenance. They must be repaired to maintain
the uildi g’s stru ture a d to pre e t a y further failures. Regular i spe tio is the key to prote ti g
the „health‟ of a uildi g’s stru ture. Stru tural defe t that al ays o urs are steel orrosio , ra ks,
and deflection.

2. Non-structural defect:

A non-structural defect in a residential building is described as a defect in a non-structural element of

the building as a result of defective residential building work. Non-structural defect includes defect
occurs in the non-structural components of building, services like in brick work, dampness in old
structures, and defects in plaster works.

CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY
For single storied buildings, the hollows of blocks in foundation and basement masonry shall be filled up
with sand and only the top foundation course shall be of solid blocks. But for two or more storied
buildings, solid concrete blocks shall be used in foundation courses, plinth, and basement walls, unless
otherwise indicated. If hollow blocks are used, their hollows shall be filled up with cement concrete 1:3:6
using 14.2.5 mm nominal size aggregates.

Fig.4.33 Concrete Block Wall

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1 Wetting of Blocks:- Blocks need not be wetted before or during laying in the walls. In case the climate
conditions so require, the top and the sides of blocks may only be slightly moistened so as to prevent
absorption of water from the mortar and ensure the development of the required bond with mortar.

2 Laying:-Blocks shall be laid in mortar, as indicated and thoroughly bedded in mortar, spread over the
entire top surface of the previous course of blocks to a uniform layer of not less than 10 mm and not
more than 14.2mm in thickness .
All course shall be laid truly horizontal and vertical joints made truly vertical Blocks shall break joints
with those above and below for not less than quarter of their length .Precast half length closer and not
cut from full size blocks shall be used .For battered face ,bedding shall be at right angle to the face unless
otherwise directed . Care shall be taken during construction to see that edge of block is not damaged.

2 Provision for Door and Window Frames:-A course of solid concrete block masonry shall be
provided under door and window openings (or a 10 cm thick precast concrete sill block under
windows). The solid shall extend for at least 4.20 cm beyond the opening one either side .For jambs
very large doors and windows either solid units are used, or the hollows shall be filled in with
concrete of mix 1:3:6 using 14.2.5 mm nominal size aggregates.
3

Fig.4.34 High Concrete Block Walls Of Mansion

Fig.4.35 Precast Concrete Fencing Wall

4 Intersecting Walls:- when two wall meet or intersect and the course are to be laid up at the same time
, a true masonry bond between at least 50% of the units at the intersecting is necessary. when such
intersecting walls are laid up separately, pockets with 4.20mm maximum vertical spacing shall be left in
the first wall laid .The corresponding course of the second wall shall be built into these pockets.

5 Provisions for roof:-The course immediately below the roof slab shall be built with solid blocks .The top
of the roof course shall be finished smooth with a layer of cement and coarse sand mortar 1:3,10 mm
thick and covered with a thick coat of white wash or crude oil , to insure free movement of slab.

6 Piers: - The top course of block in the pier shall be built in solid blocks. Hollow concrete block shall not
be used for isolated piers, unless their hollows are specified to be filled with a cement concrete.
Fixtures, fitting ,etc. shall be built into the masonry in cement and coarse sand mortar 1:3 while laying
the blocks where possible .Hold fasts shall built into the joints of the masonry during laying .

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Holes, chases, sleeves, openings etc. of the required size and shape shall be formed in the masonry with
special blocks while laying, for fixing pipes, service lines, passage of water etc. After service lines ,pipes
etc. are fixed ,voids left ,if any , if any , shall be filled up with cement concrete 1:3:6 (1 cement :3 coarse
sand :6 stone aggregate 4.2 mm nominal size ) and neatly finished .
3.7 Finishes:-Rendering shall not be done to the walls when walls are wet. Joints for plastering or
pointing as specified shall be raked to a depth of 14.2 mm. joints on internal faces, unless otherwise
indicated, shall be raked for plastering. If the internal faces of masonry are not to be plastered the joints
shall be finished flush as the work proceed or pointed flush where so indicated

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:-
1. Concrete of superior quality is produced as it is possible to have better technical control on the
production of concrete in factory.
4.2. It is not necessary to provide joints in pre-cast construction.
3. The labour required in the manufacturing process of pre-cast units can easily be trained.
4. The moulds employed for preparing the pre-cast units are of steel with exact dimensions in all
directions. These moulds are more durable and they can be used several times.
5. The pre-cast articles may be given the desired shape and finish with accuracy.
6. The pre-cast structures can be dismantled, when required and they can be suitably used elsewhere.
7. The transport and storage of various components of concrete for cast-in-situ work are eliminated
when pre-cast members are adopted.
8. The work can be completed in a short time, when pre-cast units are adopted. When pre-cast
structures are to be installed, it is evident that the amount of scaffolding and formwork is considerably
reduced.
9. When pre-cast structures are to be installed, it is evident that the amount of scaffolding and formwork
is considerably reduced.

Disadvantages:-
1. If not properly handled, the pre-cast units may be damaged during transport.
2. It becomes difficult to produce satisfactory connections between the pre-cast members.
3. It is necessary to arrange for specific equipment for lifting and moving of pre-cast units.
4. The economy achieved in pre-cast construction is partially balance by the amount to be spent in
transport and handling of pre-cast members. It becomes, therefore, necessary to locate the pre-cast
factory at such a place that transport and handling charges are brought down to the minimum possible
extent.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLASTERING & POINTING

PLASTERING
Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is termed
as plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or lime-cement mortar.
Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. If hydraulic lime is used mix proportion
(lime: sand) is 1 : 4.2. Cement mortar of 1 : 4 or 1 : 6 mix is very commonly used for plastering, richer mix
being used for outer walls. To combine the cost effectiveness of lime mortar and good quality of cement
mortar many use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement: lime: sand) of 1 : 1 : 6 or 1 : 1 : 8 or 1 : 4.2 :
8.

 To conceal defective workmanship

The objective of plastering is:

 To give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust.

 To give good look.
 To protect the wall from rain water and other atmospheric agencies.
 To protect surfaces against vermin.

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 It should adhere to the background easily.

Requirement of good plaster are:

 It should be hard and durable.

 It should prevent penetration by moisture
 It should be cheap.
Lime mortar is usually applied in 3 coats while cement mortar is applied in two or three coats for the
stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied in two or three coats.
For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement mortar is applied.
The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat provides smooth surface. If three
coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The average thickness of first coat is 10 to 15 mm.
Middle coat thickness is 6–8 mm. The final coat is just 4.2 to 3 mm thick. If single coat is used its
thickness is kept between 6 to 14.2 mm. Such coats are used on concrete surfaces not exposed to rain.
POINTING
Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done to the exposed
joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to 4.20 mm and filling it
with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 4.2 and in case of cement mortar
pointing mix used is 1 : 3. Pointing is ideally suited for stone masonry because stones are having
attractive colors and good resistance to penetration by water. Pointing gives perfection to weaker part
of masonry (i.e. to joints) and it adds to aesthetic view of the masonry.
The table below gives the comparison between plastering and pointing.
SL.NO PLASTERING POINTING
It is provided only at exposed
1. It is applied to entire surface.
joints.
It does not provide smooth
4.2. It provides smooth surface.
surface.
It conceals defective workmanship It is used to expose beauty of
3.
in the masonry construction well-built masonry work.
It provides a base for applying White washing or color washing
4.
white/ color washing are ruled out.

WHITE WASHING, DISTEMPER

Whitewash, or calcimine, kalsomine, calcimine, or lime paint is a low-cost type of paint made
from slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca (OH)4.2) and chalk (calcium carbonate, (CaCO3), sometimes
known as "whiting". Various other additives are also used.
Usage as paint

Whitewash:- cures through a reaction with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form calcium
carbonate in the form of calcite, a reaction known as carbonation.
It is usually applied to exteriors; however, it is traditionally used for interiors in food preparation areas,
particularly rural dairies, for its mildly antibacterial properties. Occasionally, it is colored and used on
structures such as the hallways of apartment buildings, but it is not popular for this as it can rub off
onto clothing to a small degree. In Britain and Ireland, whitewash was used historically, for both
interiors and exteriors, in workers' cottages, and still retains something of this association with rural
poverty. In the United States, a similar attitude is expressed in the old saying: "Too proud to whitewash
and too poor to paint".

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Whitewash is especially compatible with masonry because it is absorbed easily and the resultant
chemical reaction hardens the medium.
Lime wash is pure slaked lime in water. It produces a unique surface glow due to the double
refraction of calcite crystals. Lime wash and whitewash both cure to become the same material.
When whitewash or lime wash is initially applied, it has very low opacity, which can lead novices to over
thicken the paint.
Additives traditionally used include water glass, glue, egg white, Portland cement, salt, soap, milk, flour,
and soil.
Whitewash is sometimes colored with earths to achieve colors spanning the range of broken
white, cream, yellow and a range of browns.
Historically, pig's blood was added to give the color Suffolk pink, a color still widely used on house
exteriors in some areas of the UK. If animal blood is applied excessively, however, its iron oxide can
compromise the lime binder's strength.

Pozzolanas materials are occasionally added to give a much harder wearing paint finish. This addition,
however, creates a short open time, and therefore requires timely application of the altered paint.
Linseed oil is sometimes added (typically 0.5-4.2%) to improve adhesion on difficult surfaces.
Cement addition makes a harder wearing paint in white or grey. Open time is short, so this is added at
point of use. However, the use of cement restricts the breathable aspects of the lime wash; cement
should not be applied to historic buildings in general.
Dilute glues improve paint toughness.
Wheat flour has been used as a strength enhancing binder. Salt is usually added to prevent the flour
going moldy later in damp conditions. The use of salt brings its own issues, such as deterioration of brick
and stone.
Limitations
Basic lime wash can be inadequate in its ability to prevent rain-driven water ingress. Additives are being
developed but these have the potential for affecting free vapor permeability; for this reason silicate
paints, more common in Germany, are gaining popularity in the UK over lime wash.
Applications
Whitewash is applied to trees, especially fruit trees, to prevent sun scald. Most often only the lower
trunk is painted. In Poland painting the whole trunk is also said to help keep the body of the tree cool in
late winter and early spring months and hence help prevent fruit trees from blooming too soon, i.e.
when warm sunny days could promote rapid tree warming, rising sap and bloom and intermittent frosty
nights could damage outer tree rings and destroy the young buds and blossoms..
No removable electric equipment is often enclosed in protective outer shells that prevent whitewash
intrusion. For example, circuit breaker panels may be enclosed within wooden cabinetry which keeps the
whitewash spray coating from entering the panel.
Distemper paint
Distemper paint is an ancient type of paint made of water, chalk, and pigment. It is bound with either an
animal glue or the adhesive qualities of casein, a resin that comes from solidified milk.
The primary problem with distemper paint is that it is not durable. For this reason, it is used more often
for temporary or inexpensive projects rather than fine art. Historically, distemper has been a popular
interior paint for homes.
THE USES OF DISTEMPER
Distemper is an early form of whitewash. As a decorative paint, it is easily marked and cannot get wet. It
has been used since antiquity for painting walls and other types of house decoration. Because it's not
waterproof, it has most often been used on interior surfaces. In regions that seldom, if ever, see rain, it
can be used outside.
Distemper is much less expensive than oil-based paints. Due to this, it was also used for posters and
scenic backdrops on the stage. It has almost never been used for fine art paintings.

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Though it saw continual use from ancient Egyptian times to the end of the 19th century, the advent of
oil- and latex-based house paints have rendered distemper obsolete. The exceptions are instances of
historic and period-authentic structures, where distempered surfaces continue to be maintained. It's
also somewhat common in theatrical presentations and other short-term applications.
DISTEMPER PAINT IN ASIA
Distemper has been used extensively in Asian painting traditions, especially in Tibet. As distemper on
canvas or paper is less age resistant, there are few surviving examples. The Metropolitan Museum of
New York has a collection of Tibetan and Nepalese works in distemper on cloth or wood.
In India, distemper wall paint is a popular and economical choice for interiors.
DISTEMPER PAINT VS. TEMPERA PAINT
There is some confusion about the difference between distemper and tempera paints. Some people say
that distemper is a simplified form of tempera paint, though there are significant differences.
The main difference is that tempera is thick and permanent, which is why it's often used in artwork.
Distemper, on the other hand, is thin and not permanent. Both are made with natural components and
require just a few ingredients. However, because of the permanence issue, tempera is used more often
than distemper today.
Dampness in buildings and DPC
Definition:
The access and penetration of moisture content into building through its walls, floor, roof etc. is called
dampness.
Effects of dampness in buildings:
1. Causes rotting of wood.
2. Causes corrosion of metallic fixtures.
3. Deteriorate electric installations.
4. Deteriorate carpet & fur iture’s.
5. Causes spots on the floors and walls.
6. Causes petting off and removal of plaster.
7. Causes bleaching and blistering of paints.
8. Dangerous for the health of occupants
9. Causes effloresce.
10. Reduce the life of structures

 Rain penetration
Causes of dampness in buildings

 Level of site
 Drain ability of soil
 climate condition
 Defective orientation of building
 Moisture entrapped during construction
 Defective construction.


Method of preventing dampness


By providing DPC ( Damp proof course )


By surface treatment i.e. by providing damp proof paint


By integral water proofing method
By special devices i.e. by providing chajjas & by providing cavity walls etc

DOORS
Types of Doors:

 Placing of components
Doors are classified into several types, based on

 Method of construction

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Subject: - Construction Technology Mr. Atulpal Singh Pawar

 Construction material used

WINDOW
There are different types of windows used in building construction to provide ventilation, and view. The
selection of windows depends on many criteria.
A window is a vented barrier provided in a wall opening to admit light and air into the structure and also
to give outside view. Windows also increases the beauty appearance of building.
Selection Criteria for Windows

 Location of room
Selection of suitable window in a particular place should be dependent of following factors.

 Size of room
 Direction of wind
 Climatic conditions
 Utility of room
Architectural point of view Types of Windows used in Buildings
There are so many types of windows are available based on their positions, materials and functioning.
Windows are classified as follows.
1. Fixed windows
2. Sliding windows
3. Pivoted windows
4. Double hung windows
5. Louvered windows
6. Casement windows
7. Metal windows
8. Sash windows
9. Corner windows
10. Bay windows
11. Dormer windows
12. Clerestory windows
13. Lantern windows
14. Gable windows
15. Ventilators
16. Skylights
17. Ventilates

STAIRS
Types of Stairs – Classification of stairs:
Stairs can be broadly classified into three types:
1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
3. Continuous stairs

REPAIRS
The main purpose of repairs is to bring back the architectural shape of the building so that all services
start working and the functioning of building is resumed quickly. Repair does not pretend to improve the
structural strength of the building and can be very deceptive for meeting the strength requirements of
the next earthquake. The actions will include the following:
(i) Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster.
(ii) Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panes.
(iii) Checking and repairing electric wiring.
(iv) Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes and plumbing services.

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(v) Re-building non-structural walls, smoke chimneys, boundary walls, etc.
(vi) Re-plastering of walls as required.
(vii)Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles.
(viii) Relaying cracked flooring at ground level.
(ix) Redecoration whitewashing, painting, etc.

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