Nuclear Reactions:

FISSION & FUSION

 Introduction

 Nuclear reactions deal with interactions

between the nuclei of atoms
 Both fission and fusion processes deal with
matter and energy
 Matter and Energy

 Previous studies have taught us that “matter

and energy cannot be created nor destroyed”
 We now need to understand that Matter and
Energy are two forms of the same thing
 E = mc2

 Remember that matter can be changed into

Energy
 This tells us that a small amount of mass can be
converted into a very large amount of energy
because the speed of light (c) is an extremely
large number

Light
Energy Mass
Speed
 Fission

 Fission may be defined as the process of

splitting an atomic nucleus into fission
fragments
 The fission fragments are generally in the form
of smaller atomic nuclei and neutrons
 Large amounts of energy are produced by the
fission process
 Fission

 Fissile nuclei are generally atoms with more

neutrons than protons
 The nuclei of such heavy atoms are struck by
neutrons initiating the fission process
 Fission occurs when the strong nuclear force is
disrupted by an incoming projectile (in this
case a neutron)
 When the strong nuclear force is disrupted
electrostatic repulsion splits the nuclei
 Fission

 A classic example of a fission reaction is that of

U-235:
U-235 + 1 Neutron
3 Neutrons + Kr-91 + Ba-142 + Energy
 In this example, a stray neutron strikes an atom of U-235.
It absorbs the neutron and becomes an unstable atom of
U-236. It then undergoes fission. Notice that more
neutrons are released in the reaction. These neutrons
can strike other U-235 atoms to initiate their fission.
Nuclear Chain Reaction
 Fission

 Fission produces large amounts of heat energy

and it is this heat that is captured by nuclear
power plants to produce electricity.
 Fusion

 Fusion is a nuclear reaction whereby two light

atomic nuclei fuse or combine to form a single
larger nuclei which is lighter than the sum of the
two that fuse.
 The lost mass is converted to energy. (E
( = mc2 )
 For fusion to occur, a large amount of energy is
needed to overcome the electrical charges of
the nuclei and fuse them together
Fusion
 Fusion

 Fusion reactions do not occur naturally on our

planet but are the principal type of reaction
found in stars
 The large masses, densities, and high
temperatures of stars provide the initial
energies needed to fuel fusion reactions
 The sun fuses hydrogen atoms to produce
helium, subatomic particles, and vast amounts
of energy
 Energy Comparison
 Because of the large binding energies involved
in a nucleus, both fission and fusion involve
energy changes of more than a million times
larger than those energy changes associated
with chemical reactions.
 Review

 Mass and Energy are two forms of the same

thing; neither can be created nor destroyed but
mass can be converted into energy (E = mc2)
 Fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy
atomic nucleus is split into lighter atomic nuclei
 Fusion is a nuclear reaction in which 2 light
atomic nuclei are combined into a single,
heavier atomic nucleus
 HYDROGEN BOMB

 A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon

design that uses the heat generated by a
fission bomb to compress a nuclear fusion
stage.
 The basic principle of the Teller–Ulam
configuration, the most common configuration
of hydrogen bombs, is the idea that different
parts of a thermonuclear weapon can be
chained together in “stages,” with the
detonation of each stage providing the energy
necessary to ignite the next stage.
 The nuclear fusion in an H-bomb releases neutrons much
faster than a fission reaction, and these neutrons then
bombard the remaining fissile fuel, causing it to undergo fission
much more rapidly.
 A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon designed to use
the heat generated by a fission bomb to compress a nuclear
fusion stage. This indirectly results in a greatly increased
energy yield, i.e., the bomb’s “power.” This type of weapon is
referred to as a hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb, because it
employs hydrogen fusion. Oddly, in most applications, the
majority of its destructive energy comes from uranium fission,
not hydrogen fusion alone. The fusion stage in these types of
weapons is required in order to efficiently create the large
quantities of fission that are characteristic of most
thermonuclear weapons.
 FEATURES OF HYDROGEN BOMB

 The essential features of a mature, thermonuclear

weapon design, which officially remained secret for
nearly three decades, are the following:

 First, the stages of the weapon are separated into a

triggering, primary explosive and a much more powerful
secondary explosive.
 After this, the secondary explosive is compressed by X-
rays coming from the nuclear fission of the primary
explosive. This process is called the “radiation
implosion” of the secondary explosive.
 Finally, the secondary explosive is heated,
after cold compression, by a second fission
explosion that occurs inside the secondary
explosive.
 The most common bomb design that employs
these features is called the Teller-Ulam
configuration. It should be noted that no
hydrogen bomb has ever been used during the
course of an actual war. The only two nuclear
weapons that have been used were both
fission-based.
TELLER-ULAM DEVICE
 HISTORY

 The first time the principle of a hydrogen bomb was tested

was on 9 May 1951 by the United States military, during the
“George” test of Operation Greenhouse at the Pacific
Proving Grounds. Most of the energy yield of this test came
from fission fuel, but it demonstrated that a fission bomb
could be used as a stepping-stone to something even more
destructive. A similar test, “Item”, took place on 25 May
1951.
 The first true hydrogen bomb test, “Ivy Mike”, was on 1
November 1952, detonated at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific, as part
of Operation Ivy. The bomb exploded with a force equivalent to 10.4
megatons (million tonnes) of TNT — over 450 times more powerful
than the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki during World War II.
Using liquid deuterium as fuel, this hydrogen bomb required 18
tonnes of refrigeration equipment. It was not a practical weapon, but
it proved that a fusion bomb of enormous power could be built.
 A later test, “Castle Bravo”, used solid lithium deuteride
instead, decreasing the weight of the device, removing the
need for refrigeration, and making it a weapon that could be
carried by a plane or attached to a missile. The Castle Bravo
test, with a yield of 15 megatons, is the most powerful nuclear
weapon tested by the United States, but not the most powerful
ever. That distinction belongs to the device known as “big Ivan”
detonated by the Soviet Union 13,000 ft (4,000 m) above a test
field on Novaya Zemlya island on October 30 1961. The 50
megaton explosion resulted in an area of complete destruction
with a radius of 15.5 miles (25 km) from ground zero, and
broken window panes 559 miles (900 km) away. Witnesses
described a huge fireball that reached the ground, and up to a
height of almost 34,000 ft (10,363 m); a mushroom cloud that
reached 210,000 ft (64,008 m); and a flash that was visible 621
miles (1,000 km) away.
 NUCLEAR BOMB

 Nuclear weapon, device designed to release

energy in an explosive manner as a result of
nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or a
combination of the two processes. Fission
weapons are commonly referred to as atomic
bombs. Fusion weapons are also referred to
as thermonuclear bombs or, more commonly,
hydrogen bombs; they are usually defined as
nuclear weapons in which at least a portion of
the energy is released by nuclear fusion.
 Nuclear weapons produce enormous explosive energy. Their significance may best be appreciated
by the coining of the words kiloton (1,000 tons) and megaton (1,000,000 tons) to describe their
blast energy in equivalent weights of the conventional chemical explosive TNT. For example, the
atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945, containing only about 64 kg (140 pounds) of
highly enriched uranium, released energy equaling about 15 kilotons of chemical explosive. That
blast immediately produced a strong shock wave, enormous amounts of heat, and lethal ionizing
radiation. Convection currents created by the explosion drew dust and other debris into the air,
creating the mushroom-shaped cloud that has since become the virtual signature of a nuclear
explosion. In addition, radioactive debris was carried by winds high into the atmosphere, later to
settle to Earth as radioactive fallout.

 The enormous toll in destruction, death, injury, and sickness produced by the explosions at
Hiroshima and, three days later, at Nagasaki was on a scale never before produced by any single
weapon. In the decades since 1945, even as many countries have developed nuclear weapons of
far greater strength than those used against the Japanese cities, concerns about the dreadful
effects of such weapons have driven governments to negotiate arms control agreements such as
the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963 and the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
of 1968. Among military strategists and planners, the very presence of these weapons of
unparalleled destructive power has created a distinct discipline, with its own internal logic and set
of doctrines, known as nuclear strategy.
 The enormous toll in destruction, death, injury, and sickness
produced by the explosions at Hiroshima and, three days later,
at Nagasaki was on a scale never before produced by any
single weapon. In the decades since 1945, even as many
countries have developed nuclear weapons of far greater
strength than those used against the Japanese cities,
concerns about the dreadful effects of such weapons have
driven governments to negotiate arms control agreements
such as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963 and the Treaty
on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968. Among
military strategists and planners, the very presence of these
weapons of unparalleled destructive power has created a
distinct discipline, with its own internal logic and set of
doctrines, known as nuclear strategy.
 The first nuclear weapons were bombs
delivered by aircraft. Later, warheads were
developed for strategic ballistic missiles, which
have become by far the most important
nuclear weapons. Smaller tactical nuclear
weapons have also been developed, including
ones for artillery projectiles, land mines,
antisubmarine depth charges, torpedoes, and
shorter-range ballistic and cruise missiles.
EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR BOMB
 Nuclear weapons are fundamentally different from
conventional weapons because of the vast amounts of
explosive energy they can release and the kinds of effects they
produce, such as high temperatures and radiation. The prompt
effects of a nuclear explosion and fallout are well known
through data gathered from the attacks on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, Japan; from more than 500 atmospheric and more
than 1,500 underground nuclear tests conducted worldwide;
and from extensive calculations and computer modeling.
Longer-term effects on human health and the environment are
less certain but have been extensively studied. The impacts of
a nuclear explosion depend on many factors, including the
design of the weapon (fission or fusion) and its yield; whether
the detonation takes place in the air (and at what altitude), on
the surface, underground, or underwater; the meteorological
and environmental conditions; and whether the target is urban,
rural, or military.
 When a nuclear weapon detonates, a fireball
occurs with temperatures similar to those at
the centre of the Sun. The energy emitted
takes several forms. Approximately 85 percent
of the explosive energy produces air blast (and
shock) and thermal radiation (heat). The
remaining 15 percent is released as initial
radiation, produced within the first minute or
so, and residual (or delayed) radiation, emitted
over a period of time, some of which can be in
the form of local fallout.
 BLAST
The expansion of intensely hot gases at extremely high pressures in a
nuclear fireball generates a shock wave that expands outward at high
velocity. The “overpressure,” or crushing pressure, at the front of the
shock wave can be measured in pascals (or kilopascals; kPa) or in
pounds per square inch (psi). The greater the overpressure, the more
likely that a given structure will be damaged by the sudden impact of
the wave front. A related destructive effect comes from the “dynamic
pressure,” or high-velocity wind, that accompanies the shock wave.
An ordinary two-story, wood-frame house will collapse at an
overpressure of 34.5 kPa (5 psi). A one-megaton weapon exploded at
an altitude of 3,000 metres (10,000 feet) will generate overpressure of
this magnitude out to 7 km (about 4 miles) from the point of
detonation. The winds that follow will hurl a standing person against a
wall with several times the force of gravity. Within 8 km (5 miles) few
people in the open or in ordinary buildings will likely be able to survive
such a blast. Enormous amounts of masonry, glass, wood, metal, and
other debris created by the initial shock wave will fly at velocities
above 160 km (100 miles) per hour, causing further destruction.
Blast and radiation effect
 THERMAL RADIATION

 As a rule of thumb, approximately 35 percent of the total

energy yield of an airburst is emitted as thermal radiation—
light and heat capable of causing skin burns and eye injuries
and starting fires of combustible material at considerable
distances. The shock wave, arriving later, may spread fires
further. If the individual fires are extensive enough, they can
coalesce into a mass fire known as a firestorm, generating a
single convective column of rising hot gases that sucks in fresh
air from the periphery. The inward-rushing winds and the
extremely high temperatures generated in a firestorm consume
virtually everything combustible. At Hiroshima the incendiary
effects were quite different from those at Nagasaki, in part
because of differences in terrain. The firestorm that raged over
the level terrain of Hiroshima left 11.4 square km (4.4 square
miles) severely damaged—roughly four times the area burned
in the hilly terrain of Nagasaki.
 INITIAL RADIATION
 A special feature of a nuclear explosion is the emission
of nuclear radiation, which may be separated into initial
radiation and residual radiation. Initial radiation, also
known as prompt radiation, consists of gamma rays and
neutrons produced within a minute of the detonation.
Beta particles (free electrons) and a small proportion of
alpha particles (helium nuclei, i.e., two protons and two
neutrons bound together) are also produced, but these
particles have short ranges and typically will not reach
Earth’s surface if the weapon is detonated high enough
above ground. Gamma rays and neutrons can produce
harmful effects in living organisms, a hazard that
persists over considerable distances because of their
ability to penetrate most structures. Though their energy
is only about 3 percent of the total released in a nuclear
explosion, they can cause a considerable proportion of
the casualties.
 RESIDUAL RADIATION

 Residual radiation is defined as radiation emitted more

than one minute after the detonation. If the fission
explosion is an airburst, the residual radiation will come
mainly from the weapon debris. If the explosion is on or
near the surface, the soil, water, and other materials in
the vicinity will be sucked upward by the rising cloud,
causing early (local) and delayed (worldwide) fallout.
Early fallout settles to the ground during the first 24
hours; it may contaminate large areas and be an
immediate and extreme biological hazard. Delayed
fallout, which arrives after the first day, consists of
microscopic particles that are dispersed by prevailing
winds and settle in low concentrations over possibly
extensive portions of Earth’s surface.
 A nuclear explosion produces a complex mix of
more than 300 different isotopes of dozens of
elements, with half-lifes from fractions of a
second to millions of years. The total
radioactivity of the fission products is
extremely large at first, but it falls off at a fairly
rapid rate as a result of radioactive decay.
Seven hours after a nuclear explosion, residual
radioactivity will have decreased to about 10
percent of its amount at 1 hour, and after
another 48 hours it will have decreased to 1
percent. (The rule of thumb is that for every
sevenfold increase in time after the explosion,
the radiation dose rate decreases by a factor
of 10.)
 ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE
 A nuclear electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is the time-varying
electromagnetic radiation resulting from a nuclear
explosion. The development of the EMP is shaped by the
initial nuclear radiation from the explosion—specifically, the
gamma radiation. High-energy electrons are produced in
the environment of the explosion when gamma rays collide
with air molecules (a process called the Compton effect).
Positive and negative charges in the atmosphere are
separated as the lighter, negatively charged electrons are
swept away from the explosion point and the heavier,
positively charged ionized air molecules are left behind.
This charge separation produces a large electric field.
Asymmetries in the electric field are caused by factors
such as the variation in air density with altitude and the
proximity of the explosion to Earth’s surface. These
asymmetries result in time-varying electrical currents that
produce the EMP. The characteristics of the EMP depend
strongly on the height of the explosion above the surface.
 EMP was first noticed in the United States in the 1950s when
electronic equipment failed because of induced currents and
voltages during some nuclear tests. In 1960 the potential
vulnerability of American military equipment and weapons
systems to EMP was officially recognized. EMP can damage
unprotected electronic equipment, such as radios, radars,
televisions, telephones, computers, and other communication
equipment and systems. EMP damage can occur at distances
of tens, hundreds, or thousands of kilometres from a nuclear
explosion, depending on the weapon yield and the altitude of
the detonation. For example, in 1962 a failure of electronic
components in street lights in Hawaii and activation of
numerous automobile burglar alarms in Honolulu were
attributed to a high-altitude U.S. nuclear test at Johnston Atoll,
some 1,300 km (800 miles) to the southwest. For a high-yield
explosion of approximately 10 megatons detonated 320 km
(200 miles) above the centre of the continental United States,
almost the entire country, as well as parts of Mexico and
Canada, would be affected by EMP. Procedures to improve
the ability of networks, especially military command and control
systems, to withstand EMP are known as “hardening.”