Arsi University

College of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Department of Horticulture
Vegetable Crops Production and Management
 Pre-test
1. What is the word Horticulture mean?
2. What are the branch of Horticulture industry?
3. What are the factor hinder vegetable crops production in
Ethiopia?
1. INTRODUCTION
Historical background and major divisions of horticulture

The word Horticulture is derived from two Latin words, Hortus

mean garden and culture mean cultivation, Hence horticulture
means garden cultivation.

Over the last years, the horticulture industry has developed far
beyond this simple definition.

Today, horticulture includes cultivation, processing and sale of

vegetables, fruits, nuts, flowers and ornamental plants.
Major divisions of horticulture
Pomology: the science and practice of growing, harvesting, storing,
processing and marketing of fruits
•Olericulture: the science and practice of growing, harvesting,
storing, processing and marketing of vegetables.
•Floriculture: the science and practice of growing, harvesting,
storing, designing and marketing of flowers
•Landscape and nursery industry: the science and practice of
propagating, growing, installing, maintaining, and using grasses,
annual plants, shrubs and trees in landscape.
 Definition
Vegetables are horticultural food crops grown in most cases
as annual, in some cases as biennial and in few cases as
perennials.
Most plants are herbaceous not woody.
Plant parts that are used for food can be:
• Roots
•Stems
• Tubers
• Immature seeds
•Leaves
• Mature fruits
Edible parts are high in water content, eaten raw or cooked.

Vegetables are usually eaten in small quantities as a side

dish with the staple food.
Vegetables can be stored only for a short period of time, rarely
over nine months.

Vegetable production is one of the major branches of horticulture,

from the point of view of value of products it is the most important
branch.
The term vegetable gardening formerly used, is no longer defines
commercial vegetable growing since a large part of the production
of the major crop is conducted on a large scale as specialized types
of farming rather than as a gardening.
Characteristics of Vegetables

Vegetable crops are moist, low acidic foods that can support the
growth of food poisoning bacteria.

Some types of bacteria produce poisons in the food without signs of

spoilage, and consumers may therefore be unaware of the
contamination and eat the poisoned food.

All types of root crop processing should be carried out under

hygienic conditions.
The main components of vegetable crops are water (60-90%), starch
and fiber, with lesser amounts of proteins, fats, sugars, vitamins and
minerals.

The outer skin is a barrier to micro-organisms and some insects, but

it is easily damaged during harvest or transport, and this causes the
root to spoil rapidly.
The skin also slows down the loss of water from the root,
preventing shriveling and drying out for several days or weeks
after harvest.

However, the roots continue to mature and naturally occurring

enzymes, as well as bacteria and moulds, change their color and
texture.

One of the most important is an enzyme that causes rapid

browning of the root crop when it is cut.
Sweet potato in particular may also sprout during storage, and
insects and rodents may damage all root crops and tubers.

Compared to some other crops (such as cereals), there is thus a

more limited amount of time available after harvest before they must
be processed.
 Prospects of Vegetable crops production in Ethiopia
Suitable Climatic and Natural Resources

 Ethiopia has :-
 favorable climate
 comparatively abundant land
 labor
reasonably good water resources that created ample opportunities
for horticulture and floriculture production.
The agro-ecological factors of the country give the chances of all-
year-round production capability.

The country has :-

122 billion cubic meter surface water
 2.6 billion cubic meter ground water
12 river basins
18 natural lakes including the Rift Valley lakes
a potential of 3.7 million hectares irrigable land.
About 80-90% of these resources are located in the west and south-
west of the country where close to 40% of the Ethiopian population
lives and 10-20% of these resources are located in the east and
central part where most of the population has settled.
Ethiopia’s agro-Climatic conditions make it suitable for the
production of a broad range of fruits, vegetables as well as cut
flowers.

The range of altitude, temperature and soil variability of the country

has created an enormous ecological diversity and a huge wealth of
biological resources.
 Principal Production Sites

The country’s producers of horticultural and floricultural products

can generally be grouped into three major categories.

High lands, rivet valley, middle altitude.

 High Level of Support by the government

The Government of Ethiopia has introduced various measures and

launched an all-out effort towards the attainment of agricultural
development.

The government’s relentless efforts to exploit the linkages between

agriculture and industry through the private sector development is
now firmly holding ground.
Ethiopia’s industrial development strategy highly encourages
investors engaged in the production and export of agricultural
products (especially in floriculture, horticulture, pulses and
oilseeds).

Special loan is provided through the Development Bank of Ethiopia

(DBE) and the bank has the following credit policy:-

•Interest rate is fixed at 7.5% per annum.

•However, this could vary from time to time.
•The Bank shall give its clients maximum grace period that
involves the period up to the commencement of operation.

• Maximum allowable grace period is fixed at three years.

•All fixed asset of the project shall be held as collateral or loan

security of the project.
•The debt / equity ratio requirement shall be 70 / 30 for newly
starting projects.

•However, for ongoing projects which include expansion of existing

projects, ratio shall be 60 / 40.

•Loan repayment period is determined taking into account the

profitability and debt servicing capacity of the borrowing concern
as well as the economic life of major investment items, with the
maximum repayment period of 10 years.
Constraints involved in the development of the vegetable crops
production in Ethiopia

1. Lack of knowledge about production and utilization

•Most of the cultivated varieties are relatively new to the Ethiopian

farmer
•Dietary importance of fruits and vegetables is not appreciated locally
•little progress was made in the use of recommended technologies
•yield and quality is very low as compared to world standard
2. Lack of research and extension work
•much emphasis was not given to the development of horticultural
crops
•very low number of qualified personnel in the areas of research,
extension and production
•The perennial nature of these crops didn’t attract researchers.
3. Disease and pests problems, salinity etc.
•Nematode and salinity problem on banana plantation in lower
Awash and middle Awash
•Fruit fly on Guava, Fungal disease on citrus and other diseases on
vegetables
4. Lack of seed (planting material)

•improved and adaptable materials are not available

•no specialized enterprises that distribute certified planting
materials
5. Marketing problems - quality and handling

•During peak harvest low prices of fruits and vegetables which

might be below the production cost.
•After two to three months produce become scarce and prices will
be higher
•Storage problems to store the produce from peak harvest period to
scarce period.
•Cooled and ventilated trucks and air transport are not available to
take the produce to distant markets without affecting the quality.
6. Seasonality of supply

Since most vegetables are grown under rain fed conditions the
supply fluctuates seasonally.

The season of lowest vegetable supply is the main rainy season

between June to mid September when also prices are the highest.

Between October and January there are mode rate supply of fresh
vegetables but starts to rise in February and reaches its peak level in
April and May.
7. Packing, transport and storage

The loss of vegetables between production and consumption is

estimated to be 25-35%.

The purpose of packing, transport and storage is to mitigate the

post harvest loss gap between producer and consumer, and or
reduce the time interval between harvesting and consumption.
The peasants have no storage facilities at their disposal and the
products they harvest are usually exposed to the influence of the
weather until they are collected by the end users.

The trade also does not operate any intermediate storage system for
carrying ever supply to obtain better prices.
In general several types of transportation means are used to market
horticultural crops.

These include the human labour, donkeys, mules, some public

transport, rented pickups, mini trucks and large trucks.
Food consumption in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the second highly populated country in sub-Saharan

Africa.

Owing to this fact the population contains several ethnic groups

with varied cultures and eating habits.
In general eating habits in the Ethiopia in to categorized four
types.

•The predominant food of ‘ injera and wat’ which is especially

consumed in the urban centers.

•The high consumption of root crops-potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams

and the root of the false banana called enset (Ensete ventircosum L.),
which is predominate in the south central part of the country.
•The eating habits in the big towns and their surroundings which is
the mixture of foreign dishes and the high landers staple food,
injera and wat.

These eating habits create very poor consumption preferences for

most of fresh fruits and vegetables.

The average annual percapita consumption of horticultural crops

estimated to be 37kg for the rural and 48 kg for the urban
population.
The same study estimated the rural per capital expenditure on
vegetable as 12 birr per annum, only 6% of the total annual
expenditure on food.
Importance of root and tuber crops
Nutritional value of vegetables
•Vegetables as a source of vitamins

Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is abundant in several root and

tuber crops such as carrots and sweet potatoe
Vitamin C is abundant in many vegetables:-
kale
Brussels sprouts
broccoli
lettuce
tomatoes
peppers
potatoes
cabbage
greens
cucumber
onion, especially when they are uncooked.
2. Vegetables as a source of minerals

Vegetables are important sources of the minerals that are essential for
proper growth and development.

Potato, sweet potato and onion contain appreciable amounts of

phosphorus.
Calcium is present in :-
Spinach
Beans
Lettuce
Onions
Tomatoes
Head cabbage
Cauliflower
Broccoli
Kale
Soyabean
Spinach
Peas
Chilies
Radish
Garlic
Beans
Tomato are good sources of iron.
Vegetables like:-
Onion
Okra
Asparagus provide iodine.
3. Vegetables as a source of roughage
Most vegetables have a high percentage of roughage, i.e.
indigestible cellulose material.
Although of no direct nutritional value, the presence of this
material in the human digestive system is, nevertheless, of
considerable value.

Not only does the spongy mass help to satisfy the apetite, but it also
assists in moving food through the alimentary canal by aiding the
muscular action of the intestine, thus preventing constipation.
4. They are important in neutralizing the acid substances

Produced in the course of digestion of heavy food stuff such as:-

Meat
Cheese
and others which causes aging and leading to blood cancer, obesity,
hypertension, cholesterol, heart attack which is a problem of blood
cancer.
 Economic value
The value of vegetables is as an important article of daily human
diet has come to be recognized all over the world in recent years.

Vegetables contribute economically to the general well-being due to

the following reasons:-
1. They are rich sources of 'Protective' elements like minerals, salts,
vitamins and other chemical substances, which the human body
seeds to maintain good health and cheer.
2. Per hector yield of root and tuber is very high
3. They are an important source of farm income
4. They have high aesthetic value
5. More vegetable crops can be raised in one year
6. Importance of root and tuber in farmer's income.
7. Vegetable are important source of farm income such as;
a. Vegetable are sold at a higher rate than other crops.
b. It provides regular work throughout the year to the year to the
family labors.
c. Per hector yielded root and tuber is very high
d. More root and tuber can be raised in one year (i.e. potato)
 Food value of vegetables

Today, mankind is worrying about the possibility of satisfying its

future demands for food staff.

The most alarming situation exists in developing countries.

According to FAO about 25,000,000 people die every year from

hunger and exhaustion in developing countries.
It is especially dangerous for children, because half of all pre-school
children in developing countries are deprived of normal nourishment,
which causes various physiological disorders and leads to mental and
physical retardation.

The problem lies in the monotonous traditional diets, which

endangers the disease of one or another.

The problem is aggravated by the high population growth rate of the

developing countries where the land resources are limited.
Vegetables will play an important role in solving the problems of
increased ford (low) production and providing a balanced diet.

 Besides high productivity, vegetables crops have a high nutritive

value that is why, in some countries, national agricultural
development programs are focusing on the need to increase the
production of vegetables in order to increase their proportion in the
daily food ration.

According to recent FAO data, the annual consumption of

vegetables in the world approximately 250,000,000 tones.
In different countries the annual vegetable consumption per capita
varies greatly: 2 kg in Mauritania to 195 Kg in Portugal.

The recommended amount of vegetable consumption per person

per annum is 100-120 Kg per annum.
Per capita production and expenditure of vegetables in Ethiopia.
A recent study estimates the average annual per capita consumption
of vegetables as 37kg for rural and 48kg for urban population.

 The same study estimated the rural and urban per capita
expenditure on vegetables as birr 12 per annum and birr 29, only 6%
of the total annual expenditure for food, respectively.
The urban consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables is estimated to
be as low as 25-30% of that of Western World (130-160KG per
capita).

The consumption of canned fruits and vegetables by both the rural
and urban population is close to zero.

This low level of per capita consumption is accounted to:

•The traditional eating habits of our population
•The low level of per capita income
• The high price of vegetables and fruits
• Less knowledge about vegetables
•Supply shortage of some preferred vegetables
 Improving vegetable production in Ethiopia
Minimizing dependence on rain

Heavy or little rainfall, drought or shortages of irrigation

water have repeatedly resulted in erratic yield losses.

 This can be overcome by installation of irrigation scheme in

vegetable farms and its encouragement in peasant farms so that
dependence on rainfall is minimized.
•Appropriate Planning

Keeping the production supply according to the capacity of

processing plants and market demand.

•Giving necessary priorities

Priorities need to be given for horticultural crops research and

development, encourage market promotion and improve the
consumption habit of the society.
•Correct technological imperfection

Avoid use of inadequate production equipments both in cultivation

and processing of commodities.

•Develop communication of peasant rural market with the main

routes and improve transportation facilitie in relation to perishable
nature of vegetables.
In many parts of the world vegetables constitutes a large part of the
diet.

Vegetable crops are vital source o food.

In some tropical countries, gardening becoming a highly

commercial venture, which can provide a source of hard currency.
The Need for Growing Vegetables Crops Production in
Ethiopia.
There are two strong justifications for the expansion of vegetable
industry in Ethiopia.

The diet of our people is very low in fresh vegetables especially

with those with high vitamins and minerals

There is high potential of export market for high quality

vegetables to the neighboring countries
•Most areas in Ethiopia have favorable conditions that would make it
possible to produce almost all types of vegetables provided that there
is:

•Proper selection of varieties

•Proper selection of season
•Proper selection of altitude
•Proper selection of soil conditions
• Proper disease and pest management
Purpose of Vegetable production

Provide the processing industries with raw materials in accordance

with the demand and capacity of the industries

Produce marketable quantity for the export of quality with

international standard

Produce a wide range of commodity for internal market

Introducing horticultural production on large-scale farms means

the application of improved and intensive production methods
This includes:

Proper field selection and layout

Efficient application of irrigation

Adequate plant protection from planting to harvesting

 Use of high yielding varieties adapted to local climatic conditions

Adequate fertilizer application

 Use of crop rotation

 Farm mechanization
To achieve high productivity

•Uses of improved varieties which can be developed through

Introduction, evaluation and selection, Breeding
•Use of better planting materials: Production and supply of
superior quality and healthy materials.
•Appropriate density planting: Use the right spacing as per
recommendations
•Appropriâtes crop managent practice (fertilizer, irrigation,
pesticides etc)
•To reduce cost of production
•Economy in fertilizer uses ( proper placement, Proper time of
application and Proper rate of application)
•Economy in use of irrigation water
•IPM
•Proper use of materials or other resources
•Application of recent research findings
•Exploitation of less grown type
•Tissue culture
Minimizing Post harvest losses

Harvest at optimum time

Proper handling and packaging
 Proper quantum of package
Cold storage
Air conditioned trailers for transport
 
CHAPTER 2

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING VEGETABLE

PRODUCTION
Temperature
Of all the climatic factors affecting vegetable production,
temperature is the most important one. It affects:
•General survival
•Seed germination
•Development of economic parts
•Flowering and pollination
• Fruit set
• Quality of products
•Seed storage
•Seed dormancy
•Occurrence of disease and pests
Photosynthesis (the conversion of solar energy for use by the plant)
and respiration (the using of stored energy compounds in the plant
for growth and development) are regulated by temperature.
Development of economic part is highly dependent on temperature in
many crops:

• In the cases of potatoes, temperature range of 20-24oC is favorable

for sprouting and initial growth.

•For subsequent growth and tuberization, a temperature of 18-20oC is

optimum.
•Above 30oC, tubers do not form
•In onions, formation of bulbs is favored by higher temperature (20-
22oC), whereas in garlic early exposure to cooler temperature helps
in production of large bulbs.
Quality of produce is affected by temperature in most of the
vegetable crops.

Intensity of color development in tomato depends upon the

balance between red and yellow pigments which is temperature
dependent.

The best temperature range for development of red and yellow to

give optimum color is 10-30 oC.
•In carrots, orange color is proportional to the carotene content.

•The best color development occurs at 15-22oC.

•High or low temperature causes spindle shaped roots.

•Incident of disease and pests is highly correlated to certain

temperature ranges.

•Black rot (Xanthomonas campestris) of cole crops, for instance is

expressed only at high temperature.
•
The length of the vegetation period, i.e., the period with
temperature at which a complete cycle of the development of plants
is possible, has considerable significance for the growth and
development of plants.

This temperate requirement during the vegetation period is

expressed by the biological sum of temperature above 10 oC.
 Moisture
Moisture influence various phases of vegetable production
•Seed germination
•Vegetative growth
•Flowering
•Fruit set
•Maturity
•Seed production
•Storage
According to the water requirements vegetables can be classified
into the following groups
 Classification depending on water requirements

High requirement Leafy vegetables: lettuce, spinach, green

onions, celery, cole crops

Moderate Cucumber, onion, pepper, eggplant, tomato

requirement
Low requirement Root crops, legumes, cereals, and perennial
vegetables
Drought resistant Melons, pumpkin
Critical growth stages for soil-water stress on several vegetables
Crop Critical stage
Beans Flowering and pod forming
Broccoli Head forming and enlarging
Cabbage Head forming and enlarging
Carrot Root enlargement
Cauliflower Frequent irrigation essential from planting to harvesting
Celery Establishment and during rapid growth
Cucumber flowering and fruit enlarging
Egg plant flowering and fruit enlarging
lettuce Head development
Musk melon Flowering and fruit development
Onion Bulbing and enlarging
Peas Flowering and pod filling
Pepper Transplanting, fruit setting and developing
Potato Planting to harvesting
Pumpkin Flowing and fruit developing
Radish Root enlarging
Sweet corn Tasselign, silking and ear filling
Tomato Flowering, fruit setting and enlarging
Water melon Blossoming to harvesting
Waterlogging - Under waterlogged conditions, all pores in the soil
or soilless mixture are filled with water so the oxygen supply is
almost completely deprived.

As a result, plant roots cannot obtain oxygen for respiration to

maintain their activities for nutrient and water uptake.

Plants weakened by lack of oxygen are much more susceptible to

diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens.
Water-logging due to lack of oxygen in the soil causes death of root
hairs, reduces absorption of nutrients and water, increases formation
of compounds toxic to plant growth, and finally retards growth of the
plant.

The extent of flooding damage depends upon the susceptibility of

species or variety, level of water constantly present in the soil, soil
texture, air temperature and presence and type of microorganisms.

Most plants are sensitive to flooding.

Drought - Drought is generally considered to be a meteorological
term and is defined as a period without significant rainfall or
moisture.

Droughts may lead to plant water stress and growth may be

impacted.

Periods of even short drought stress can reduce crop growth and
yields.
The plant may adjust to short-term water stress by closing
stomates and thereby reducing water loss through the leaves.

When stomates are closed, the plant wilts, carbon dioxide CO2
from the atmosphere cannot enter the leaf photosynthesis is
reduced or stopped.

Growth will be slowed if such conditions are not corrected.

 Light

Light is an integral part of photosynthetic reactions in that it

provides energy for splitting of water molecules into H and O2 and

release of electrons for CO2 reduction.

Therefore, the greater the amount of light available with other

conditions favorable, the greater the rate of photosynthesis and the
amount of carbohydrates available for the plant growth and
development.
The performances of crops are influenced by three aspects of light:

•Light intensity
•Light quality
•Light duration (photoperiodism)

•Light intensity refers to the number of photons falling on a given

area.
Crops such as capsicum, eggplant and sweet potato require higher
light intensity while cabbage and potato require relatively lower
intensity.
 Light quality refers to the length of waves and it also affects crop
production.
Low red: far red ratio of light for instance favours bulbing in onion
than higher ratio.
Duration of light (photoperiod) is often the most important aspect
of light limiting the development of some vegetables.
However, this phenomenon is more apparent in regions far from
the equator.
During long light period, relatively large quantities of carbohydrates
are produced due to photosynthesis and during the short dark period,
small quantities of carbohydrates are used up for respiration, with the
result that large quantities of carbohydrates are available for growth
and production.
Thus, if long day plants are grown during short day period, there will
be less accumulation of carbohydrates and proteins resulting in weak
vegetative growth and non-flowering, where as if short day plants are
grown during long day period there will be abundant carbohydrates
and proteins resulting in vigorous growth and non-flowering.
Flowering, bulbing and fruiting of certain crop species are affected by
photoperiod.
Some flower as the day length decrease e.g. onion, soybean and
others flower as the day length increases e.g. leek.

Although most onion cultivars are short day types they form bulb
under long day condition.

Similarly, although potato is along day plant it tuberizes under short

day condition
 Soils
Soil is the storage house of mineral nutrients and water used by
higher plants as well as the home of their roots.

 Therefore, the physical and chemical composition of the soil can

be changed by adding fertilizer and other materials, and to some
extent, by drainage and tillage which favor aeration.

Good fertilizer practices, good seed, and the best of care will not
ensure success unless the soil is of good texture and is well
prepared.
Characteristics of good soil for vegetable production

Should furnish ample plant nutrient

Should furnish ample soil reservoir for available soil moisture

Should have a good physical condition and easy to work

Soil reaction should be between pH of 5-7.5 for most crops.

 Soil Management
•Soil preparation
Soil preparation consists of drainage, plowing, disking, harrowing,
dragging and rolling.

For most vegetable crops good drainage and good preparation are
essential for planting small seeds, it is important to have the surface
fairly smooth and free of clods and trash in order to plant at a
uniform depth and to have good drainage of the soil.
Drainage: for wet soils the first operation in \soil preparation
should be drainage.

Good drainage is essential to success in growing practically all

vegetables.

•Good drainage is especially important for early vegetables

because earliness is not possible in wet soils.
The sands are of value in growing early vegetables because they
are better drained than heavier soils.

On the soils that are not naturally well drained, artificial drainage
is a profitable investment.

It is much better to drain soil by means of ditcher or tiles than to

plant the crop on ridges

Drainage not only removes excess water but also allows aeration
Plowing: Soils for vegetable should be fairly deep, but a shallow
surface soil should be deepened gradually.

A depth of 15-20 cm is sufficient for most soils.

The time of plowing is determined to a considerable extent by the

time the crops are to be planted.

Where soil improving crop is to be turned under, it is desirable to

allow the crop to grow as long as it is feasible in order to get
maximum quantity of organic matter
 Disking and Harrowing

Heavy soils often break up in clods and lumps that are difficult
crumble with any type of harrows.

By use of heavy drag or roller, the lumps may be crashed with

comparative ease.
 Wind
Wind can reduce yield of horticultural crops by:

• Increasing transpiration
•Causing bruise on fruits
•Causing flower and fruit drop
•Leaves could shade and branches could break and fall
•Not conducive for field workers
Windbreaks: are barriers used to reduce and redirect wind

wind breaks could be constructed of trees and shrubs, perennial or

annual crops and grasses fences, or other materials.

reduction in wind speed behind a windbreak modifies the

environmental conditions or microclimate in the sheltered zone.

height, density, number of rows, species composition, length,

orientation, and continuity determines the effectiveness of a
windbreak in reducing wind speed and altering the microclimate.
Biotic factors

Disease - heavier fertilization may increase vegetative growth and

susceptibility to disease

Weeds - compete for moisture nutrients light

Allelopathy - harmful substances released by roots.

Parasitism
In this symbiosis, one partner benefits (parasite) at the expense of
the other partner (host).

A leaf miner that spends the larval phase of its life between the
two epidermal layers of a leaf, feeding upon the mesophyll cells.

.
 CHAPTER 3
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
Pre-test

What are the bases for vegetable, root ant

tuber crops classification ?
Any method of classification systematizes to some extent the

preparation and presentation of the material and eliminates

unnecessary repetitions of some of the principles of culture.

Bases of classification:

•Botanical Classification: It is a classification entirely based on

botanical relationship.

• It is the most exact \system, but in many cases this is of little value
in giving principles of culture since crops within the same family
may vary widely in their requirements.
For instance potato and eggplant belongs to the same family but
their cultural requirements are very much different.

However, other crops in this family such as tomato, eggplant and

pepper have nearly similar cultural requirements.
•Classification based on hardiness (Thermo classification).
•A. Warm season crops
•Tender
•Adapted to mean monthly temperature of 18-30 oC
•Sensitive to frost (easily killed by frost) (immature fruits except
peas and beans)
B. Cool season crops
•Hardy crops
•Adapted to mean temperature of 16-18oC
•Those which have endurance to ordinary frost without apparent
injury.
•Their eaten part could be roots, stems, leaves and buds or immature
flowers parts
.
The classification according to hardiness groups those vegetables
able to withstand temperatures within certain ranges during juvenile
growth.

•Hardy: withstand temperature as low as 1oC.

•Half hardy: withstand temperature well above the freezing point
•Tender: never seeded until the frost risk is over
•Very tender: require warmer temperature
On the bases of temperature some authors also use different term to
classify vegetable into the following five groups:
•Frost resistant: perennial vegetable crops
•Cold resistant: biennial cabbage plants, root crops (carrot, beet)
and greens
•Intermediate between cold resistant and heat-loving (potato)
•Heat-loving: tomato, pepper, cucumber, eggplant
•Heat-resistant: melons, pumpkins, beans, corn
Classification of vegetable depending on temperature preferences

Cool season vegetables Warm season vegetables

Hardy Half hardy Tender Very tender
Asparagus Beet Snap bean Cucumber
Brussels sprout Carrot Sweet corn Eggplant
Cabbage Cauliflower Tomato Musk melon
Garlic Celery Pepper
Kale Ch. cabage Sweet potato
Onion/Shallot/leek Lettuce Water melon
Peas Potato Pumpkin
Radish
Spinach
Cool season crops generally differs from warm season crops in the
following aspects:

They are hardy or frost resistant

Seeds germinate at cooler temperature
Root systems are shallow
Plant size is generally smaller
They respond more to nitrogen
Attention must be given to irrigation
Biennials are susceptible to premature bolting
•Classification based on botanical parts eaten as
vegetable:
Roots
Bulbs
Stems
Leaves
 Immature flower
Immature fruit
Mature fruit
•Classification based on methods of culture

A classification based on essential culture is very convenient. In this

system all those crops that have similar cultural requirement are
grouped together for discussion.
This method combines some parts of the other methods.
In teaching principles of vegetable production, this system of
classification has been found more satisfactory than others.

•The potato
•The sweet potato
•Potherbs/greens: (spinach, Swiss chard, kale and mustard)
•Salad crops: (Celery and lettuce)
•Cole crops: (Cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprout and
Chinese cabbage
Root crops (beet, carrot and radish rutabaga
Bulb crops (onion, shallot, leek, garlic
Pulses (peas and beans)
Solanaceous fruits: (tomato, eggplant and pepper)
The cucurbits (cucumber, musk melon, water melon, pumpkin and
squash
Sweet corn
•Classification based on the number of seasons a plant lives

•Annuals

•Biennials

•Perennials
•Classification based on tolerance to soil acidity

Slightly tolerant (pH 6.8-6.0): Beet, broccoli, spinach, cauliflower

lettuce, cabbage, leek and Chiness cabbage

Moderately tolerant (pH 6.8-5.5): bean, cucumber, garlic, pepper,

radish, eggplant, carrot, peas, pumpkin and tomato

Very tolerant (pH 6.8-5); potato, water melon and sweet potato
•Classification based on accepted uses (norms)

This classification is based on common uses or common linkages

that are difficult to separate and are now the norm.

This classification is pragmatic, convenient and generally accepted.

A close examination reveals how imprecise this grouping is.

However, because it places vegetables in utilization groupings, this
classification is widely accepted.
Classification of vegetables depending on uses
Cole crops Solanum Pulses Bulb and Vine crops Leafy crops
crops root crops
Cabbage Potato Peas Onion Cucumber Lettuce
Cauliflower Tomato Beans Garlic Muskmelon Spinach
Broccoli Pepper Leek Water melon Celery
Chinese eggplant Shallot Pumpkin Swiss chard
cabbage
Beet squash C. cabbage
Carrot
Radish
 •Classification depending on nutritive value
Classification based on nutrition content (nutritive value)
High in
Carbte Protein Vitamins Minerals
A C Ca Fe K P Na
Garlic Beans Carrot Pepper Kale Beet mustard Garlic s. chard

Sweet potato Peas Kale Kale Mustard S. chard s. chard Peas Beet
Yam Kale S. Radish Ch. Mustard Garlic Kale Celery
potato cabbage
Potato Mustard Spinac Cauliflowe Beet Kale Spinach Beans
h r
Sweet corn beet Mustar Spinach Peas potato carrot
d
beet Onion (top)
 CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF VEGETABLE CROPS PRODUCTION

SYSTEMS
Vegetable growing can be grouped into six types

•Home gardening
•Market gardening
•Truck gardening
• Vegetable production for processing
• Vegetable forcing
•School gardening
 Home gardening:-
Production of vegetables for home consumption.
 As most of the work caring for garden is done in spare time, the
location selected should be as close to the house as practicable.
It is usually done by women of the family.
The type of the crop to be grown depends on the preference of the
family.
The crops can be tomato, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, pepper, beet
root, potato, sweet potato, lettuce, etc
 Market gardening:
It is defined as the branch of vegetable production with the
objective of for local market or near large cities.
The type of vegetables to be grown here depends on the market
demand.
Truck gardening:
It is the production of special crops in relatively large quantities for
distant markets.
In general, truck growing is more extensive and less intensive than
market gardening.
The early development of truck growing was along the rail lines
and water courses
 School gardening:
Growing of vegetables for educational (demonstration) purpose.

Vegetable production for processing

The production of crops for processing is an important industry

and has increased more rapidly than production for market for
fresh consumption.
Vegetables can be preserved in the following methods

Canning: canned vegetables are preserved by heat to kill

sufficient number of organisms to prevent spoilage at ordinary
temperature.

Canned productions can be stored cheaply; transportation is

cheaper since all waste has been removed.

Processing by canning is by far the most important method from

the stand point of quantity packed.
•Freezing: frozen products generally have been rewarded with
good consumer acceptance.
• Consumers prefer the frozen production of some crops to fresh,
especially in those vegetables that deteriorate rapidly in transit and
on the market such as green peas, lima beans and broccoli.

•Frozen food should be kept in a frozen condition until they are to

be prepared for table.

•This requires low temperature storage, usually from -5 to 5 oC.

•Dehydration: Dehydrated vegetables will continue to be consumed
in areas where it is too cold to keep the canned product and
impossible to provide quick frozen food.

• Onions have been an important dried vegetable for many years.

•Pickling: the salt and vinegar (acid liquor ) used in pickling and the

lactic acid formed by fermentation act as preservative of the food.

Vegetable forcing: vegetable forcing is the growing of vegetables
out of their normal season of outdoor production and is
accomplished by artificial heat or protection from cold.
• Greenhouses are the common structures used for vegetable forcing
in the cold regions.

• Hot beds and cold frames are used under mild conditions.

• Vegetables forcing developed because of the demand for fresh

vegetables out of the normal season of production.
 CHAPTER 5.

PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE CROPS PRODUCTION AND

MANAGEMENT
 Pre-planting operations
Good plants are essential to success in vegetable production

•To have good plans one must have:

Good seed and use judgment and care in sowing the seeds.
Care in the management of the seedbed
In transplanting the seedlings, and
In hardening-off the plants before they are planted in the
open.
Nursery Management and Layout:

The principal reasons for establishing a nursery or a

propagation center for vegetables flowers and fruits are.

•To apply optimum growing conditions to various plants

during their very early development, that is
•High humidity and shade
•Improved soil structure and moisture
•Protection from frost during unfavorable months etc
•To economize especially expensive seeds
•To eliminate weak and diseased plant in order to obtain uneven
stand on the field

•To give seeds better condition for germination

•To produce seedlings for transplanting to rain fed fields at the start
of the rain
 Selection of Nursery
Great care is necessary in nursery site selection in order
to ensure good results.

The following points should be considered as

prerequisite
1.The area should have a flat or gently sloping surface

2.The site should have light to medium soil and should

be well drained
3.The location of the nursery site should be: Separated
from the production field
•Outside the reach of the roots and shades of tress and
buildings
•Near source of water
•Protected from strong wind
•The nursery should be faced.
 Soil for the plant beds.
•A good soil for plant growing is:
•Of good physical structure
•Friable
•Moisture retentive
•Free from disease (damping off)
•Carries abundant nutrients
•The base soil should be of a loamy nature, preferably a
sandy loam well supplied with organic matter from
transplanting soil.
•Pure sand may be used for starting seedlings that are to
be pricked out later into a good loamy soil.
Sowing seeds in green houses, hot beds or cold frames
Moisture, oxygen and congenial temperature are requisites
for germination.
In green houses and hotbeds moisture and temperature are
artificially provided, but to maintain the proper moisture the
soil must be of good texture.
A sandy loam soil is generally preferred for seedbed.

•The time of sowing seeds in greenhouses, hotbeds or cold

frames depends on the kind of crop and subsequent treatment
in needs
•In general the time between seed sowing and field setting varies
from 3-12 weeks

•Seeds are planted in flat or directly in the soil of the greenhouse

bench, hotbed, or cold frame.

•The flat is filled with a good, friable soil

•Most vegetable seeds are sown in rows and covered with soils.
Spacing: in flats the rows are spaced about 2 inch apart

In green houses benches and in hotbeds the rows are 3-6 inch apart

The depth: of seed depends on the size of the seed and kind of soil.

•Very small seeds should be covered slightly if at all not covered

•In heavy soils, seeds should have less covering than in the light

soils.
Calculations of seeding rate for vegetable crops
The properties of seeds:

•The weight of 1000 seeds and the minimum capacity of

germination must be known to determine the amount of
seeds needed for a hectare.

•To determine the capacity of germination, seeds

germination test should be carried out as follows
For the purpose paradises or flats are used

•Place wet filter paper or wet sand in the Petridish

•Lay on the paper or sand a given number of seeds depending on the
size and amount of seed available
•Replicated test is recommended
•The optimum temperature has to be between 18-22oC.
•Check the germinated seeds every day and keep the sand or the
paper wet
•Record the germinated seeds daily for two weeks after the first seed
germinate
Example; Number of seed used 25
Number of germinated seeds 19
Germination % = 19/25 x 100 = 76%
•Now Find the weight of 1000 seeds
•With these two figures, the seed rate needed for the right plant
population per hectare according to the following formula
Seed rate = Plants needed/ha X Weight of 1000 seeds
Germination capacity x (100-RP) X 100

RP- reserve plant (calculated amount of plants to replace losses

during transplanting or re-transplanting

Example: Number of plants = 40,000/ha

1000 seeds weight = 3 kg
Germination capacity = 80%
RP= 25%
Seed rate = 40000 x 3 = 0.2kg/ha
80 x (100-25) x 100
Calculation of Nursery area
Required figures:
Plant population on the production field
RP needed to compensate losses during transplanting
Spacing in the nursery
Examples
Plant population = 33300 plants/ha, RP 20% = 6660
plants, Sum = 39960 plants
Spacing in the nursery
Recommended spacing in the nursery bed is 15cm
between rows and 2-3 cm between seedlings in the row.
One seedling would occupy a space of 15 x 2.5 cm = 37.5 cm2
1m2 = 10000cm2
Therefore, 10000 = 266 seedlings/m2 of seed bed,
The standard seedbed is 5mx1m
The number of seedlings per seed bed is therefore 266 x 5 =
1330seedlings
Hence, the number of seedbeds required for transplanted hectare is
40000/1330 = 30 seed bed
Seed and seed sowing

Seeds and other propagating materials (cuttings seedlings) should be

obtained from a reliable source.
•Select the right varieties according to the recommendations
•Strictly follow the recommended seed rate
•Seeds should be sown in rows running across the width of the seed
bed
•Consider mulching with 5cm deep layer of dry grass or straw
•Apply water immediately
•Remove the mulch as soon as the seedlings are visible above ground
 Care for seed bed
Very close attention must be given to the seedbed for good
results
•Great care must be given to the temperature, moisture,
ventilation
Things to be avoided:
•Chilling the plant
•Overheating and lack of ventilation which makes the plant
soft
•Over-watering which makes the plant susceptible to damping
off
•Wilting due to too much heat or too little water
 Fertilizer application

In the absence of soil analysis, the following standard

recommendation for fertilizer of nursery bed is made in
the light of local experience.
•Fertilizer should be applied to the nursery 2-3 days
before or after planting at the rate of 50kg P and 30 Kg N
per hectare of seedbed which is recommended for soils
of medium fertilizer
•On poor soils, apply double of this rate and no soils of
high fertility half the rate should be applied.
 Windbreak

•In windy areas it is advisable to establish temporary wind

breaks at 50m interval in the nursery

•A Suitable windbreak can be made by sowing a single line

pigeon pea.
Plant protection
Spraying pesticides
Care for plants grown in the nursery for transplanting

Seedling rate must vary according to the soil temperature and

germination percentage
•Avoid too thick seedlings, thus preventing damping-off
•Planting depth should be roughly 1-2 cm
•Maintain the soil moisture in the desirable range for the crop
seed
•Seedbeds should be free of weeds

•Pre-sowing soil disinfection or sterilization may help to avoid

infestation with insects and diseases

•Control insects and diseases carefully from the time of seeding to

the time of emergence

•Do not try to force plants to rapidly grow either by heavy

fertilization, over-watering or with high temperature
•Harden the plant before lifting by gradual reduction of water for
about 7-10 days

•Sock the beds 6-12 hrs before lifting to facilitate the maximum
retention of roots and plant turgidity
•Apply fertilizers
 Hardening Plants
The term hardening or hardening-off is applied to any
treatment that results in a firming or hardening of tissues
of the plants, thus enabling them better to withstand
unfavorable environmental conditions.

Any treatment that materially checks growth increases

hardiness

The treatments commonly used to harden plants are

exposing them to:
•Relatively low temperature for a week or more
•Allowing the soils of the plant bed to become dry
•Combination of these two
The water supply to plants can be reduced more easily than
temperature can be controlled
•Cut down the water gradually,
•Water lightly at increasingly longer intervals as the growth slows
down
•Do not allow plant dry out suddenly
•Expose plants to temperature lower than those used for optimum
growth but very low temperature is not needed
Hardening is accompanied by:
•Decrease in growth
•Thickening of tissues
•Increase in the waxy covering on the leaves
•Increase in the percentage of dry matter
•Decrease in the percentage of freezable water
•Decrease n the percentage of transpiration per unit area of the leaves
•Increase in the percentage of sugar
•Development of pink color in the stems, petioles. And leaf veins
 CHAPTER 6.

PLANNING AND ESTABLISHING VEGETABLE FARM

 Planning
Cropping plans have two aspects: development of a general rotation
plan and sequencing particular crops.
The rotation plan provides the framework; the sequencing plan
provides the details of what crop goes where in succeeding years.

The rotation plan needs to be general enough to allow flexibility in

sequencing.

The sequencing plan is necessarily tentative and ideally leaves room

for alternative crops in case weather or markets force last minute
changes
The relative importance of rotation planning vs. crop sequencing
in overall crop planning depends on the farm.

In general, as the complexity of the farm operation increases,

rotation planning becomes less possible and careful crop
sequencing becomes more critical.
If your farm operation is suited to rotation planning, developing a
plan will greatly simplify your crop sequencing.

If, however, your operation is highly complex then following a

general plan is likely to prove useless.

In that case, detailed record keeping and careful placement of crops

become key to avoiding rotation problems.
Site selection

Site selection includes issues such as soil type and topography.

Steep slopes are not suited to vegetable production and some

soils will be unsuitable, while other soil types will have varying
degrees of suitability that may require modification of the soil or
some adjustment in growing practices.
The water holding capacity, pH and the fertility of the soil will also
influence the crop management that needs to be undertaken.

Water and drainage Vegetable crops develop water requirements

which are specific to their variety, maturity, and the surrounding
atmospheric and soil characteristics.
With respect to drainage, it is the physical topography of a
particular site which assumes the most significant role.

The immediate elevation, slope, and soil structure needs to be

carefully assessed before establishing the vegetable garden.

The most suitable types of location have gentle surface slopes and
contain deep and well drained soils.

Many vegetable growers prefer a moderately heavy loam with at

least several feet of topsoil.
While a deep sandy loam can also be very good for root crops like
carrots and beets, it is better to avoid the types of heavy clay soils
which become sodden in winter.

The availability of water for irrigation is essential and vegetable

production should not be contemplated without it.
The irrigation method will also need to be considered.

If there is an existing irrigation system on site, is it suitable for your

chosen crop?
Infrastructure on the site will also influence the outlay costs and so
may help in the choosing of a site.

Consider things such as cold rooms, glasshouses, washing and

packing equipment and sheds, paddock drains, irrigation systems,
access (roads and headlands), fencing, and plant and machinery.
 Crop selection
 Prevailing farm conditions. An environmental scanning should
first be conducted.

This involves a thorough ocular inspection and other methods to

obtain information on the biotic factor that can affect plant growth
and yield, soil and climatic conditions prevailing in the area, and
accessibility.
Here the guiding rule is: know your farm first then select the
right crop.

The biotic factor refers to living organisms including ruminant

animals, insect and other pests, disease pathogens and weeds, as
well as organisms having beneficial effects should considered.

Where there is prevalence of a disease in a locality, susceptible

crops may be excluded or a resistant variety may be selected.
The topographic features of the land like elevation, slope, and terrain
as well as the physical and chemical properties of the soil such as
texture, color, organic matter content, pH and fertility levels will
determine the crops that are naturally suited.

Also, the various climatic factors, such as prevailing climate type,

temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, incidence of light, will limit
the choice of crops.
A stable supply of water within the farm will allow wide
possibilities in crop selection.

In addition, the accessibility of the farm to and from the market will
influence the choice of crops.

For example, cassava and oil palm should be preferably grown in

farms with good roads and as close as possible to the market because
the harvest is bulky and must be transported immediately due to
rapid rate of degradation.
Crop or varietal adaptability. 

The crop(s) and the variety (ies) to be grown should be selected

based on their adaptability to the prevailing conditions in the farm.

A useful guide is to identify the crops growing in the farm and in the
neighbourhood.
An interview of the neighbouring farmers will also provide valuable
information as to the probability of success, or failure, of growing
certain preferred crops.

Furthermore, it is an advantage to have access to lists of different

crops under the various plant classification based on natural
adaptation or habitat.
Marketability and profitability. For those who want to engage in 
cash crop farming or, at the least, ensure financial sustainability,
crop selection must consider marketability and profitability.

In general, this means that the crop to be selected must be high

yielding.
The product, be it the fruit, seed, modified root or stem, flower or
foliage or any part, must have an accessible, stable and robust
market.

With efficient labor and use of inputs, the harvest will realize profit
to finance the succeeding farm activities or generate substantial
return on investment.

However, market and price are dictated by many factors such as the
number of competitors, supply and demand, and development of
new products, promotional campaign, and agribusiness cycle.
Resistance to pests and diseases. 

Regardless of the purpose of farming, it is important to be able to

select a crop and variety with wide resistance to important pests and
diseases.

The use of susceptible varieties may result to high cost of production

or, worst, total crop failure.
Available technology. The technology for the growing of the crop
must have been well established or easy to learn and apply.

Likewise, certain crops are preferred because technical assistance is

available locally.
 Farming system. Crop selection is affected by the system of farming
employed, that is, whether purely crop farming or integrated with
livestock animals.

Likewise, the particular crop species to be grown will depend on the

crop production practices such as monoculture, multiple cropping,
hedge row-strip cropping, and planting patterns.
Security. In the absence of security personnel or where there is no
fence that will exclude intruders, crop selection may be done in
favour of those which are not susceptible of thievery.

This will avoid such crops as vegetables and fruit crops which can
be easily harvested for food and for cash.
 Layout
Lay out plot and create a structure that looks good and
produces good product.

Even a small patch should be divided into four areas, ideally

four quadrants with a cross of paths, with a small, round
central bed.

 Rotate your productive plants from one year and one area to
another, avoiding putting the same plant into the same soil
again for four years and hence preventing a build-up of pests
and diseases.
 Land Preparation

The vegetable producer needs to have clear understanding of good

tillage practices to maintain high crops and preserve soil viability for
future use.

Good tillage practice includes:

 Plowing
turning the soil over and depositing the surface plant residue at the
plow depth
•Soils of vegetable should be fairly deep
•Generally deep plowing is essential (6-8 inch deep)
 Disking and harrowing:
Break clods and lumps.
Disking or harrowing soon after plowing is required.
Planting (Sowing)
The time and method of planting seeds and plants of a particular
species in the open determine to a considerable extent the success or
failure of the crop.
To ensure satisfactory stand of the plant, attention must be given to:
•Preparation of the soil for the seedbed
•Depth of planting
•Other factors such s thinning and watering
 Time of Planting
No definite date can be given for planting vegetable seeds and
plants because climatic conditions widely vary within
relatively small areas.
However, the time of planting should be determined with
reference to:
The soil and the weather conditions
The kind of the crop
The time when the produce is desired
•In regions where climatic conditions are favorable throughout
the year, there is no definite time for planting.
 Rate of Planting
Among the points to be taken into account in regard to the quantity
of seeds to plant are:
•The viability of the seed
•The germination rate of the seed
•The time of planting and the condition of the soil
•The size and vigor of the young seedlings
•The possible damage of insects
•Seeds known to be of low viability should be planted more thickly
than those having high percentage of germination
•
•Seeds planted when the soil and weather conditions are
unfavorable for quick germination
should be planted at heavier rate than when the conditions are
favorable
•The longer the time required for seed germination, the heavier
should be the rate of planting
•Seeds that produce delicate, weak plants such as carrot should be
planted thickly to ensure a good stand.
•Any excess plant may be removed to prevent crowding
•If insect damage is expected heavier rate of planting is advisable
 Thinning
Thinning is an important operation when seeds are planted where
the plant is to mature, for more plants usually come up than are
needed.
Thinning may be made a process of selection.
The weakest plants should be discarded and the strongest should be
left to grow
Nursery Transplanting
Plants started in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames are usually
transplanted at least once and sometimes twice or three time prior
to being set in the field
Advantages of transplanting
•Economy in the use of valuable space in greenhouse, hotbed or cold
frame
•Saving of seeds of expensive seeds
• Increases root branching in response to root breakage caused by
taking up the seedlings
•Generally transplanting results in more stocky plants with better
root system and this increases yield and hasten maturity
Disadvantages

•Extra labor required

•Check in growth (inhibited growth) due to taking up and stetting
the crop. the severity of check in growth depends on:
•The number of times a plant is moved with the resultant breaking of
the roots and the root hairs
•The size of the plant (age)
•The larger the plant, the greater the check in growth
•The length of time the plant is operating under a reduced water
supply owing to root injury
•The environmental conditions that affect transpiration from the
leaves until root replacement occurs
•The proportion of the root system retained in the transplanting
processes
•The ability of older retained roots to absorb water
•The rate at which roots are formed
•The species of the plant (growth rate).
•Slow growing plants suffer less than rapidly growing one
Classification of vegetables according to their responses to
transplanting
Easily survive Requires care in Not transplanted
transplanting operation successfully in the
usual method
Broccoli Carrots Beans
Brussels sprout Celery Corn
Cabbage Pepper Cucumber
Cauliflower Eggplant Muskmelon
Swiss chard Peas
Lettuce watermelon
Onion
Tomato
The crops in the last group suffer a very serious check if the
roots are disturbed

Stages of Transplanting

Seedlings are said to be at optimum stage for transplanting when

they:
Reach a certain height (mostly 10-12cm) or
When they develop a certain number of true leaves or
When they produce good root system
 General Principles of Transplanting

The plant should be well hardened before transplanting

•However, water should be applied the day before seedlings are lifted
to minimize damage to roots
•Seedlings should be carefully lifted from the seedbed with a fork.
Avoid pulling out.
•As soon as they are out of the seedbed the roots must be protected
against drying out by wrapping bundles of seedlings in grasses,
sacking or plaster sheet, or by packing them lightly root down in the
plastic field box
 Field planting
Success in field planting dependent on good plants, good conditions
of the soil and doing the work in proper manner
•The soil should be properly prepared prior to transplanting
•Contact between the roots and soil is important because the roots
cannot take up moisture unless they are in close contact with fine,
loose soil.
•For the same reason, it is essential that the soil is well firmed around
the roots
•Some authorities recommend removing part of the foliage when the
plants are set in the field
•Where irrigation is used, the water may be applied either before or

after setting the plants.

•If soil is very dry, it is best to irrigate before transplanting

operation.

•Irrigation should also be given after the plants are set

•Where irrigation is not used, the best time to set plants is in cloudy

weather or late afternoon.

•Setting plants in later afternoon gives time during the night to

recuperate (recover) from the shock of transplanting

•Plants should be set slightly deeper than they were in the seedbed.

• It is an advantage to set long slender plants quite deeper to prevent

from whipping way by wind, and with some plant such as tomato,

roots will grow from the stem below the surface of the soil.
Starter solutions
•Use of starter solutions instead of water alone at the time of setting
out plants has become a common practice.
•They are occasionally used to apply nutrients to plants while they
are growing in the field
•The starter solution is made by dissolving fertilizer nutrients in
water, usually 5:15:15 NPK per liter of water
•Use of starter solutions increases yield of the crop, especially when
grown on land that is not well fertilized.
•On highly fertilized land, the starter solution may not increase yield.
 CHAPTER 7
MANAGEMENT OF VEGETABLE FARM
Cultivation
The benefits of cultivation are
•Destruction of weeds, thereby conserving moisture and nutrients
and eliminating competition for light and air.
•Improving moisture content of the soil
•Increasing aeration and there by favoring nitrification and aiding
other processes in the soil.
•Increasing the absorption and retention of heat
When and how to cultivate?

•Should be done at the time most favorable for killing weeds before
the establishment of weeds
•The best time is just as the weeds are emerging through the surface
before they incur much completion.
• At this stage shallow cultivation is sufficient.

•If the weeds are allowed to get larger, deeper cultivation is

necessary.
 Mulching
The benefits of mulch depend on the material used and depth to
which it is applied.
In general, mulching minimizes evaporation of water from the
soil surface, reducing irrigation need by around 50%.
It helps stabilize soil moisture levels, thereby improving
vegetable quality and encouraging the beneficial activity of soil
organisms.

Mulching helps reduce soil compaction forces rain.

Some may later be plowed in to the garden as a soil amendment,
adding organic matter to the soil.
 Weeding
Weeds are any plants that compete for growth factors such as
water, light, nutrient in the production of crops.

Although weeds vary in their growth patterns, they all share a

capacity to germinate, establish, and grow at a rate much faster
than vegetables and complete their growth cycle in a very short
period of time.
Weed Control: Weeds can be controlled by hand weeding,
cultivation of inter tillage, mulches, chemical weed control,
and flaming or burning.
Chemical weed control: To eliminate hand weeding,
herbicides can be used.
One has to take into account the following aspects while using
herbicides.
•Mode of action - Contact or systemic

•Crop tolerance (refer/read types of tolerance)

•Rat and accuracy of application

•Chemicals used

•Equipment for application

 Irrigation
Irrigation is essential for successful vegetable production in arid
and semi-arid regions, and even in many humid regions it is an
insurance against drought.

Some regions have little or no rainfall during the year and must
be irrigated for crop production.

There are three general methods of irrigation.

Surface Irrigation: This method require level or nearly level land
with a slope of 0.1- 0.4%, and for this reason it is little used where
soils are shallow and leveling should be necessary.

Two methods of surface e irrigation are furrow and flooding

irrigation.

Advantage of surface irrigation over others is low cost of equipment.

The main disadvantages of surface irrigation are,

 uneven distribution of water

Loss of water in open porous soils

Puddling and baking of the soil in the furrows

 Cost of labor in the distribution of water

However, where the land is nearly level and a cheap supply of water
is available, this method is satisfactory

Sub-surface: This method consists in delivering the water to the

plant from below.
The advantages claimed for sub-irrigation are as follows

•The water supply is constant

•The surface soil is kept dry which prevents rapid evaporation

•The surface does not puddle

The main disadvantage is the large quantity of water required

•For successful sub-irrigation the land must be level or have a

slight and uniform slope.

Essentials for successful operation of sub-irrigation

An abundant and cheap water supply

•A sub soil floor of clay or hardpan -3-5ft below surface

•A foot or more of course sand on top of the subsoil

•A top soil of sandy loam which is neither too porous nor too

compact and which will convey the water freely.

•Land that permits perfect drainage

•Land that is level without depression or raised places

Spray Irrigation: In this method the water is applied in the form of
spray or mist somewhat similar to a gentle rain.

Some of the advantages of spray irrigation are:-

•It can be used on land too uneven for other types

•It can be used on soils that are too porous for other methods
•It distribute water more uniformly than any other type of irrigation
•The rate of application can be so adjusted that little or no erosion
occurs
•Light application of water can be made on soils or low water

holding capacity and shallow depth and for shallow-rooted crops

thus avoiding loss of water and soluble nutrients

•In this method, ditches and borders required for surface irrigation

are eliminated, thus making more land available for crop

production
The disadvantages of spray irrigation are:-

Initial cost of equipment is high

Operation cost is high owing to necessity of supplying water under
pressure
Labor cost is high where movable lines are used
Strong winds may prevent irrigation at critical time resulting in
uneven distribution of water, and cause excessive loss of water by
evaporation
Mechanical difficulties such as, failing of sprinkles to rotate,
clogged nozzles
 Fertilization
Manure and soil improving crops

•One of the most difficult problems facing a vegetable grower is

to maintain the organic matter content of the soil.
•Most vegetables are grown on farms that the intensively cropped;
that are one or more cultivated crops that are grown on the land
each year, and the crop residues are not sufficient to replace
organic matter lost annually.

•The rate of loss depends on the soil type , moisture, temperature

and the type of the crop grown.
•Organic matter is important as a source of plant nutrients and
because of the effect on certain soil properties.

•Soil organic matter can be maintained at a fairly high level by

growing crops in rotations which include sod (dirt with grass,
green etc) crops and few cultivated or inter-tilled crops.
•This system of farming is not economically feasible for a
vegetable grower because vegetable land is too valuable to be used
for low value crops.

•The vegetable grower, therefore, must rely on animal manure and

soil improving crops as a means of supplying soil organic matter.
 Manure
•The most common domestic sources are horses, cattle,
goats, sheep, pigs, rabbits and poultry.
•The value of manure and fertilizers in general have been, in
the past, based on the relative amount of N, P , and K they
contain.
•While these are the major elements that doubtless affect the
value of manure to a great extent than the proportion of any
other constituents, it is misleading to make a direct
comparison between FYM and chemical fertilizers based
solely on the relative amount of NPK.
•
•Soil needs continual replenishment of its OM to convert into
humus plays important role in making nutrients available to higher
plants.
•Manure is valuable as a source of humus – a source of both minor
and major nutrients. Manure is:
o Carrier and promoter of beneficial organisms
o Possibly carries growth promoting substance
•The main benefit of manure in vegetable growing is its organic
matter content.
• It is also a source of other nutrients.
 Showing Kg of plant nutrients in 1 ton (1000kg) of animal
manure

Animal Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash

Horse 6.0 2.3 5.5
Cow 5.1 1.4 4.5
Pig 4.1 3.1 4.2
Sheep 6.8 3.1 8.2
Hen 9.8 7.5 4.6
 Compost
•When manure becomes scarce, artificial manure or
compost can be used but the uses of such materials are
limited.
•In making compost, fresh manure is piled in alternate
layer with absorbent materials.

•One of the methods of making compost is to start with a

few inches of loose soil or to fresh manure, then
alternating layers of absorbent material and manure.
A good composting process passes through 3 consecutive
stages, these are as follows:

1. a heating phase (fermentation)

2. a cooling down phase
3. a maturation phase
 Heating phase

During the first stage of composting, the compost heap starts to

heat up considerably.

This effect is known as fermentation and is the result

of the breaking down of the complex and tough fibrous material

of the organic matter.

This fermentation process (decomposition) is strongest in the

centre of the heap.

To get the fermentation going quickly and effectively, a number of
factors are important.

 In the first place the compost heap should be made of all sorts of
organic materials.

Secondly, the right microorganisms have to be present.

 Thirdly, it is very important that there is adequate oxygen and

water.
If these three conditions are met, heat is generated quickly.

In the next chapter we explain how to meet these conditions when

putting compost making into practice.

During fermentation the micro-organisms multiply and change at a

rapid rate, which adds to the heating up process.

In this way, a self accelerated process is started.

The fermentation stage usually begins after 4-5 days and may take

1-2 weeks.
Temperature test

A simple way to see if the fermentation process has started is as

follows: put a stick in the centre of the heap about 5 days after

completing the compost heap or after the final turning over.

Leave it there for about 5 to 10 minutes.

Cooling down phase

The fermentation phase gradually changes into a cooling down

phase.

Decomposition occurs without much generation of heat and the

temperature drops slowly.

During this period new types of micro-organisms convert the

organic components into humus.
The heap remains clammy and hot inside and the temperature drops
from 50o C to 30o C.

By regulating the temperature, air and water supply, the process can
be accelerated or slowed down.

How long this cooling down stage takes, depends on the type of
heap, the material, the attention given to it, the climate etc.
 Maturation phase

In this end phase of decomposition, the temperature drops to soil

temperature, depending on the climate, 15-25 o C.

Apart from the micro-organisms mentioned, the large soil fauna are
active at this stage too.

In temperate regions, earthworms in particular, feed on the

strongly decomposed organic material, and in this way contribute
to decomposition.
In the tropical to semi arid regions, termites in particular play an
important role, although these can also be very troublesome.

This phase never really comes to an end; the decomposition

process can go on infinitely at a slow rate.

The compost is ready for use if it feels crumbly and looks like
good brown/black organic soil.
Trimmings from vegetables, unless seriously diseased, garbage,
straws, hay that is not suitable for feed, weeds , etc may all be
added to the compost heap.

•Composts are seldom practical for large-scale vegetable

production because of the large amount of labor requirement.

• Compost piles are popular with small-scale vegetable production

and home gardening.

•Compost is very valuable for greenhouse crops and for growing

young plants for transplanting.
 Soil Improving Crops

•Green manure crops or cover crops constitute soil-

improving crops where the former is grown especially for
soil improvement and prevention of soil erosion.

•Addition of soil organic matter by soil improving crops has

additional advantages to manure as these crops absorb the
nutrient from the soil which otherwise might have been lost
by leaching and are returned to the soil as they are plowed
in.
•Leguminous soil improving crops further add to the nitrogen
already present in the soil.

•The only disadvantage is that these crops occupy the land, which
could have been otherwise used for growing economic crops

•Soil improving crops are those crops grown solely for the purpose
of improving the soil condition for the growth of succeeding crops.
•The terms green manure and cover crops are sometimes used.

•Green manure crops are those that are grown especially for soil

improvement, are turned under while they are still green, and

usually grown during the same season of the year as the vegetable

crops.
•Cover crops may be plowed under as green or dead material, but

most of them are plowed under green.

•Cover crops are those which are grown both for protection of the

soil and soil improvement but are grown during season of the year

when vegetables do no occupy the land.

Selection of Soil Improving Crops

In selecting soil improving crops, the following should be

considered

*. Adaptation of the crop to the climate and the soil

*. Quantity of the vegetative matter produced in the time available

*. Character of root growth

Ease of incorporating the material with the soil
*. The time when the crop is to be planted
*. Whether the crop is to be turned under while green or as dead
material

Since vegetable growing in organic matter is of greatest

importance, under most conditions, the crop or combination of
crops selected usually should be the ones that will produce the
largest quantity of humus-forming material in the time available
Time of turning under soil improving crops:

The best time to turn under soil improving crops

spends on:
•The time the succeeding crop is to be planted
•The kind of soil improving crop
•The season of the year when the crop is grown
•The soil condition
• The climatic condition
Commercial Fertilizers

A commercial fertilizer may consist of a mixture of several

chemical compounds; or of organic materials such as bone meal,

tank age and cotton seed meal.

•All materials supplied to the soil to furnish plants with raw

materials except animal manure and the organic matter wastes

are called fertilizers or commercial fertilizers.

Importance of commercial fertilizers

In vegetable production, commercial fertilizers are very important

and are increasing in use.

This is due to:

•Shortage of animal manure

•The increasing knowledge of value of commercial fertilizers
Application of fertilizers
 A constant optimum yield depends on, among other factors, the
availability of essential elements and organic matter content of the
soil.
 Therefore, the horticulturist has to maintain the content of
plant nutrients and organic matter at a level sufficient for the crop
by applying mineral and/or organic fertilizers.
Based on the results of soil and leaf analysis, the soil is
classified as low, medium or high or very high content of P2O5,

K2O or nitrogen.

The correct amount of fertilizer can be calculated according to

the nutrient uptake of the crop.
Nitrogen application
There are different types of nitrogenous fertilizers:
1. Ammonium fertilizers – ammonium sulphate (21%N)
•have acidifying effect
•taken up fast
2. Nitrate fertilizer – sodium nitrate (16%N)
*. Physiologically alkaline fertilizer
*. Easily leached from the soil
3
 Ammonium nitrate fertilizers – calcium ammonium nitrate

(26%N)

*. Ammonium nitrate (35%N)

*. Physiologically neutral

Amide fertilizers – urea (46%N)

* Taken up fast
The amount of nitrogen that is taken by plants is determined by
their stage of development.

For instance if the total amount of nitrogen is given at the

beginning of the growing cycle, the plant will take up only the
amount which it needs for the development of its tissues.

The rest of the fertilizer will be leached and is no more available

to the plant.

Therefore, N-application should be divided into a basal dressing

and 1-3 latter dressings.
Phosphorus application

Most of the phosphatic fertilizer formulations are suitable for

horticultural production.

The commonly used P2O5 fertilizer in Ethiopia is diammonium

phosphate (DAP) with nutrient content of 46% P2O5 and 18%N.

If DAP is to be used, the content of nitrogen should be included in

the calculation of the total amount of nitrogen given to the crop.

The calculated amount of P2O5 should be applied at once before

Potassium application
Up to now, no potassium is applied in large scale horticultural
production in Ethiopia.
Rate of Fertilizer Application
The rate of fertilizer application should be considered only in
connection with a definite analysis.
The rates of application should be based on:-

•the fertility of the soil

•the cropping system

•the crop to be grown

•the return that is expected from the crop

In general the mineral nutrition of vegetables can be summarized
as:
Broad recommendations are at best only a point from with one
can make variations to suit a particular condition.
Each field may call for a different fertilizer program for the same
vegetable.
•Soil testing, while giving some idea of NPK levels in the soil, is
only just one of several pieces of information on which
recommendation can be made.
• The recommendation should be made taking into account:
1.Type of the soil

2.Manure or soil improving crop used

3.Crop uptake and minimum level required in plan tissues in

particular crop

4.Past fertilizer and cropping history

5.Season of the year

More fertilizer should be applied if there is an increase plant density
1.P & K are less mobile and, therefore, place them in the root
zone.
2.Use more fertilizer than normally required if moisture can be
maintained
3.Where irrigation results in leaching of N, split application must
be done.
1.Desirable rations of NPK under average conditions should
approach 1:1:1 for leafy vegetables , 1:2:2 for root and tuber
vegetables, and 1:2:1 for fruit vegetables

2. If fresh manure is used do not incorporate more than 10

tones /ha as there will be burning effect on young plants.
Fresh manure also harbors termites and other insects.
Time and Method of Fertilizer Application

Fertilizer for vegetable production is commonly applied before or

after the time of planting.
There are several methods of applying fertilizers.
•Broadcasting on the surface before plowing
•Broadcasting on the surface after planting and mixing with the
surface soil by disking or harrowing.
•Applying fertilizer in bands in the bottom of the furrow –
applying fertilizers 2 -3 inches from the row
•Applying fertilizers with a drill below the surface of the soil
before the crop is planted.
•Foliage application of fertilizers:
•In some areas minor elements are supplied to vegetables as a
foliage spray.
• In some cases this is the most efficient means of supplying
minor elements to prevent deficiency.
• Only very small amount of these elements is needed and the
leaf absorbs enough to satisfy the need for normal growth.
 Crop Rotation and Intercropping
Multiple cropping
Scientifically-based crop alternation is necessary for
maintaining soil fertility, complete and economical consumption
of nutrients and water, rational uses of time, prevention of
diseases and pests, and control of weeds.
Multiple cropping is the temporal and spatial intensification of
cropping, or growing of two or more crop per year on the same
land.
There are two types of multiple cropping
 Sequential cropping
Succession cropping
•This is the intensification of cropping in the time
dimension only.
•It involves growing of two or more crops per year in
sequence on the same field.
The field may be divided into different plots.
•There may be two or three plots depending on the size of
the field and the set of crops grown. The crops are grown
alone in pure stand (sole crops)
•This requires heavy fertilization and good cultural
practices.
The following might be mentioned as an example.

Early lettuce or radish followed by beans and these by

spinach
•Early cabbage followed by late potatoes, where the
growing season is very long
•Early potatoes followed by late cabbage
•Early carrots or beets followed by beans
•Lettuce followed by late celery
•Any plan of cropping system should have some
flexibility, and this ought to be taken into consideration in
making it.
Inter-cropping-companion cropping

Inter-cropping is intensification both in time and in space.

It involves various degrees of interference between crop species.

a. Relay Cropping: The planting of the second crop between

flowering and harvest of the first crop Interference may be slight in
relay cropping as there is little competition for nutrient.
b. Strip Cropping: Involves growing of two or more crops in
different strips wide enough to permit independent cultivation but
narrow enough to permit the crops to benefit mutually.

This involves little competition among species and some

complement.

 It is used when a slope is too steep or too long, or otherwise,

when one does not have an alternative method of preventing soil 
erosion
c. Row inter-cropping: The planting of crops simultaneously in
separate rows in the field allowing some that independent
management of each crop.
Some competition for light, water and nutrient is expected.
d. Mixed inter-cropping: Crops are planted simultaneously and
in close proximity but rows arranged in distinct lines.
Seeds may be broadcasted.
Competition for light, nutrient and water is expected.
The main advantages of inter–cropping are:

Economy of space, which is important for high priced crop

Saving the tillage as the same plowing and fitting the land serves
for two or more crops
More complete utilization of nutrient
Increased gross return from the area cultivated
Disadvantages

•Increase labor cost due to the necessity for large amount of hand
labor and the impracticability of using cultivating implements

•Large demand for nutrients and moisture

•Greater difficulty in controlling insects and diseases

In planning inter-cropping, the grower should consider

the time each crop is to be planted
•the growth habit of the crop
•the space required by each at various growth stages
•the time when each is expected to mature
Compatibility of Vegetable Crops

When planning different types of succession cropping, the density

of planting and the selection of component crops mixed for

sowing, it is necessary to consider the biochemical interaction of

different kinds of plants due to the presence of different chemical

substances.
2. The compatibility or incompatibility of different vegetables

reflects their mutual favorable or inhibiting influence.

A number of vegetable crops (tomato for instance) contains

saponine, a biologically active substance which promotes the

intensive growth and development of accompanying plants.

This plant is good components in mixed sowing.

The inhibiting influence is observed when the following
combinations are grown together:

beet and mustard

 legumes and alliums

 broccoli and tomato

 cauliflower and tomato

 cucumber and potato and spicy crops

potato with pumpkin

 tomato and cucumber.

Crop Rotation
1. The term crop rotation is defined as a systematic arrangement for
the growing of different crops in a more or less regular sequence on
the same land.
2. Systematic crop growing is important in vegetable growing and
should be planned and followed as systematic as feasible.

The benefits derived from crop rotations are:

•Control of disease and insects

•Better uses of resources

Rotation as a factor of crop protection

•Many serious diseases can be controlled in a practical way by a
systematic rotation in which the host plant is grown on the same
land not oftener than once in 3 or 4 years.

•Rotation is effective in disease control mainly with those spores or

other propagating parts which live only for 1 or 2 years.
•Rotation is of value in the control of some kinds of insect

especially of species which feed on only one crop and which are

unable to move very far.

• If the host plants are not near at hand when the insect emerge,

many will perish before reaching them.

•Many explanations have been given to account for the divergent

effect of crop plants on those that follow.

•Difference in uptake of nutrients from the soil

•Difference in effect on soil reaction especially the greater removal

of bases by some crops than others

•Difference in quantity of organic matter left in the soil

•Difference in effect on pathogenic organisms in the soil

•Difference in toxic materials produced on the soil decomposition

of the plant remains

•Difference in extent and distribution of the root system

Order of crop rotation

•While it is impracticable to outline a definite rotation to follow

under all conditions
• There is a few principles that should be observed.

•To utilize fully the resources of the soil it is beneficial to alternate

shallow rooted and deep-rooted crops and to follow crops that
furnish organic matter with those whose culture favors its
decomposition.
 Alteration of crops in the home garden

First plot Second plot Third plot

Root crops and tubers Cabbage and leafy Fruit-bearing
Fruit-bearing vegetables Vegetables
Vegetables Root crops and Cabbage and
tubers leafy vegetables

Cabbage and leafy Root crops and

vegetables tubers
 Controlling insects pests and diseases of vegetable

A wide variety of vegetables are grown in Ethiopia.

Various types of insects, pests and diseases severely attack the
vegetables and causes severe losses to the vegetable growers.
A reduction in yield as well as in quality of vegetables may result
from insects and diseases.
Hence knowledge of control measures for major insects, pests and
diseases is essential for successful vegetable growing.

Among the means of controlling insects and diseases, the

following are considered important
Field Sanitation: this is essential to reduce the insect population or
inoculums of pathogens.

Measures adopted for filed sanitation include:

(a) Destruction of residue and plants harboring insects and diseases

Many insects pass winter period in the residue left on the field.

If this is ploughed under, most the insects are killed.

But diseases that live through the winter on the plant remains are
not destroyed by sloughing.

 The weed harbors the insects and pathogen in the off seasons
when appropriate host plants are not available.

 They constitute important sources of infection.

Therefore, cleaning up and destruction of weed is important.

(b) Eradication of affected plant parts and plants

Roughening of infected plants in the early stages constitutes

important measures for the control of potato virus and the
production of certified tubers.

Removal of affected plant parts may also reduce inoculums.

Systemic destruction of the affected plant or parts in the manner to

keep down the populations resorted to, to reduce the damage caused
by fruit flies infestation cucurbits and many tissue borers of plants.
Tillage:

summer plowing and up turning of the top layer of soil exposes the
soil to the summer heat with the result that the considerable extent.
Crop rotation: Rotation in cropping is effective in controlling
those insects which feed on only one crop and are unable to move
long distance.

In planning a rotation for insects control one should follow a crop

which has been known not to be attacked by the same insect.
Similarly rotation is of value to control some diseases whose
spores or other propagating structures survive only 1 or 2 years.

Soft rot of cabbage can be controlled by keeping the land free

of cruciferous crops and weeds for three years.

However, potato scab and onion smut cannot be controlled by

ordinary rotations, since the organism involved lives in the soil
for several years.
Use of clean planting materials: Use of insects and disease free
planting material is an important prerequisite for clean cultivation,
as many pathogens and some insects are carried over in the seeds
and planting materials.

In virus diseases, the most important practical measures is the use

of virus free planting materials.

The use of clean and disease free seed eliminates the need for seed
treatment in some cases.
5. Adjustment in sowing or planting:

Many plants are susceptible to attack by pests during a limited

period in their life and serious attacks will result if the population or
inoculums build up takes place during that period which is again
conditioned by ecological factors.
Adjustment to the date of sowing may be profitable practices to
avoid attack by pests by avoiding the peak period attack.

To put these concepts into practice, knowledge of the conditions

favoring the appearance of pests and varietals types of plant
essential.
Growing Resistant Varieties: The most practical means of
controlling some of plant diseases is the growing of resistant
varieties.

In some cases this is the only feasible means of controlling certain

diseases such as cabbage yellow, verticellium, bacterial wilts of
tomatoes and black rot of cauliflower.
Seed treatment to control diseases and insects: Seed treatment
with certain insecticides such as aldrin , inderne, and chlordane
prevents serious damage from certain insect pests.

Potato tubers seed treated with the insecticides, aldrin or linden

prevents damage from potato tuber moth both in storage and field.

Likewise seed treatment with fungicides can be done to prevent

seed rots, damping off and certain seed borne diseases.
Certain antibiotics are used in controlling seed borne bacterial
diseases, particularly as a dip for seed potatoes.

Some seed borne diseases are effectively controlled by soaking the

seed in hot water (50-520C) for 20-30 minutes, depending on the
type of seed.

This treatment kills the organism causing black rot, black leg and
alternaria spot of cruciferous and bacterial fruit spots and
anthracnose of tomatoes and peppers.
Control by soil treatment: Control of many soil insects is possible
insects is possible by applying insecticides to the soil before
planting the crop.

The insecticide is applied at the same time of ploughing either as

dust or sprays and mixed with the soil.

The insecticides such as Dorsban (Chloropyriphos), Mmalathion,

aldrin and chlordane can be used to control wire worms, cut worms
and grubs which attack many vegetable crops.

However, should not be used for underground vegetable crps.

Control of seed rot diseases is carried out by soil drenching by
fungicide like Bavistin, captan and thiram.
However, these are economical only in small areas like nursery
beds for raising seedlings.
Soil in greenhouse, in flats or in piles may also be treated with
formaldehyde to destroy soil pests.
.
A dilute solution (6% commercial formalin at the rate of 1 liter/sq.
ft of soil) of formaldehydes can be applied as drench and the soil
should be covered with wet bags or plastic sheets or 2 to 3 days.

The covers are removed and the soil must be aerated for about 10
days to remove the last traces of formaldehyde.

Planting too soon may results in death or injury to the seed or

plants
Control by applying chemicals to plants:
Many kinds of chemicals are effective in killing chewing insects,
since the insects eat the poison coated plant parts.
Since sucking insects do not chew the plant, insecticides which
penetrate the skin or enter through the breathing tubes or systemic
insecticides must be used.
These insecticides may also control chewing insects.

Insects like fruit fly in cucurbits family vegetable can be

controlled by applying pheromentrap with cue lure plus
malathion solution.
Important diseases and insect pests of vegetables

Crop Major Control Major Control

diseases measures insects measures
Tomato Septorial leaf spot, late Spray captafol (0.2% ABW, potato Cypermethrin
blight, powdery mildew, and Ridomil (0.23% tuber moth 100g a.i per ha
nematodes at 7 days interval
Onion Purple blotch, downy Ridomil, mancozeb Thrips Cypermethrin
mildew 100g.a.I per ha
Capsicum Powdery mildew, virus Use of clean seed,
complex, stem blight, crop rotation
bacterial spot
Shallot Bulb rot, purple plotch Ridomil mancozeb Thrips Cyprmethrin
100g.a.I per ha
Garlic Garlic rust Use resistant verities
Potato Blackeg scab, early and Resistant variety, crop Flea beetles, Difference
late blight rotation, sanitation wire worms, insecticides
potato tuber
moth
Cabbage Damping off, downy Cabbage looper, Different
mildew, fusarium wilt cabbage moth, insecticides
cut worms
 CHAPTER 8

POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF VEGETABLES

Harvesting and postharvest handling of vegetables

Yield estimation of vegetable crops

Yield estimation should be done a few weeks before harvest
starts so as to obtain information on the expected yield
This helps in:

•providing market information

•organizing transport of the crop

•planning the manpower needed for harvesting, grading and packing

• preparing the necessary packing material

Yield estimation includes
•Harvesting samples
•Weighing them
•Calculating yield per hectare
•In addition to good production, profits in commercial vegetable
production depend on proper harvesting, transport, handling and
marketing.
•The grower is largely responsible for the appearance of his
products when they reach the market.

• It should be borne in mind that fresh vegetables are living

organism; therefore they undergo normal life processes.
•They lose water through transpiration
•They undergo chemical changes

These processes contribute to the gradual deterioration of the

product and are influenced by temperature, relative humidity, and
other factors.

In all handling procedures, therefore, the aim is to retard the life

processes without stopping them all together
 Harvesting

The stage of development of vegetables when harvested

determines to a considerable extent the quality of the

product when it reaches the consumer.

 Time of harvest

No definite rule can be given in regard to the time of harvesting

since this depends on the:

•kind of crop

•weather conditions

•distance to market or the length of time to reach the consumer

*Such crops as beans, peas, and sweet corn deteriorate in quality

if not harvested soon after reaching edible maturity.

•With products which increase in size after reaching edible
maturity there is a tendency to delay harvesting until they have
reached full size.

•Tomatoes and muskmelons grown for distant market are

harvested long before they reach edible maturity.

* Promptness is of great importance in harvesting and handling

many perishable crops, especially in wet or very hot conditions.
Estimates of Post Harvest losses from the field to the market
in the following types of produce are as follows:

Leafy vegetables          –   50 %

Green Peas/Beans       –   30-50 %
Fruits                              –   20-40%
Root Crops                    –    10-20%
Dried Products            –      5-10%
The level of loss is related to the part of the plant the product
represents and therefore its life sustaining (physiological) functions
that continue after harvest.
Causes of Post Harvest Losses:
Improper harvesting
Poor handling of the produce from the field through to the market
place
Inappropriate container and use of packaging material
Poor storage conditions
Poor transportation and distribution system
Lack of adequate and appropriate storage facilities
 Preparation for market

1.Washing :- Root crops, celery, lettuce – to remove soil

and other dirt

2.Trimming: the dirt, decayed, diseased and discolored

leaves of celery, lettuce, spinach, and other leafy
vegetables are removed before the product is packed for
market.
Waxing: tomatoes, pepper, cucumber, musk melon, carrots,
potato, sweet potato are commonly waxed.

Waxes are used to improve the luster and to control shriveling

through reducing loss of moisture from the product.

Paraffins, hydrocarbon solutions, either by dipping or spraying

can be used.
Tying: to facilitate handling in retail store, asparagus, celery,
green onion, broccoli, beets, carrot, and radish are tied together.
 Grading
•Well graded products of inferior quality often sell to better
advantage than poorly graded or ungraded products of high quality.

•Uniformity in size, shape, color, and ripeness is of great

importance in disposing of any product, and this cannot be secured
without careful grading.

•Not only should vegetable be carefully graded, but there should be

some recognized standard that applies to a region or preferably to
the whole country.
Farm produce are packaged for four main reasons:

To protect the produce against rough handling during loading and

unloading and transport

To contain the produce as an efficient unit that is easy to handle

and that can be marketed as a unit

To communicate with the buyer by the way of a label therefore

advertising and marketing the product via a trade mark or a trade

name

To market the produce as the package will improve its

presentation to the buyer and provide a standard package that will

lead to efficiency in the market place

Recommended packaging materials are:

Perforated plastic bags for pre-packaged vegetables and fruits

for the retail market

Ventilated plastic crates to transport large volumes of fruits and

vegetables

Solid black crates and polypropylene (fertilizer type) bags to

transport root crops and green unripe fruits.
Some recommended storages practices are:

Store only good quality crops: clean, mature, free from disease

and injury.

The sooner the fruits and vegetables are stored after harvest, the

longer their storage life.

Do not mix fruits and vegetables of different kinds in the same

store room, and ensure good ventilation.

Make sure that the containers and the storage rooms are clean to

prevent contamination and spoilage of the produce.

Store produce such that inspection can occur from time to time to

remove spoilt items or produce for sale.

Cold storage temperatures vary between 7 -15 degrees C for most

fresh fruits and vegetables but some root crops and bulbs are stored

in drier conditions and at higher temperatures.

Container for vegetables:

Containers of some kind are necessary for nearly all vegetables

when they are shipped, and for most of them even when hauled
direct to the market from the field.
Containers perform the following functions.

•furnish convenient means for hauling products

•give protection to the goods themselves
•furnish security from pilfering (stealing in small quantities )
•provide a measure of the content
provide a means whereby products may carry identification
marks, shipping directions, legal requirements, advertising
matters ensure cleanliness
 Transportation of Vegetables

A large part of the produce grown for market is transported by

rail or by auto truck.

For most products shipped long distances refrigeration must be

used, and during very cold weather it is often necessary to
provide heat in the car or truck to prevent freezing injury.
Pre-cooling of Vegetables

When vegetables are harvested during hot weather, it is desirable

to remove field heat as soon as is feasible in order to retard
ripening and deterioration.

This is accomplished by precooking the product either before or

immediately after loading.
•The common methods of pre-cooling are:-
•
•Placing the product in a storage room , refrigerator car or truck
refrigerated with ice or machine
•Cooling in ice water (hydro-cooling )
 Immersing in ice water
 Passing the produce through a spray of cold water
•Placing ice in the package with the produce

•Vacuum cooling has developed very rapidly.

•Vacuum cooling is dependent up on the fact that the vacuum

causes water to evaporate thus cooling the vegetables, but water

loss is not sufficient to cause wilting.

• When the water changes from a liquid to a gas, heat is extracted

from the vegetable.

•This procedure seems better adapted to leafy vegetables like

lettuces that have a large thin leaf surface.

• The packed creates without ices are run into an air tight

container on small cars.

•The door is sealed and vacuum drawn on the container.

•After the product is pre cooled it is desirable to keep it cold by

shipping in refrigerator cars or trucks by storing in cold storage

rooms, by use of refrigerator cases in retail stores, and by using

Improper transportation   methods can result in 10 to 20
percent post harvest loss in fresh produce.

Therefore certain minimum requirements are necessary to

maintain quality and reduce loss.

The vehicle must not be overloaded and the load must be

stable and well ventilated.
During transportation, the produce must be protected against  sun,

rain and dust by covering it with a light colored tarpaulin or

enclosing it in a refrigerators truck

Excessive speeding, sudden stops and jerk starts must be avoided,

as they will cause  squeezing and bruising of the product

Poor roads, uneven surfaces, pot holes, winding corners will all

greatly increase mechanical damage unless adequate care is taken.

Loading and unloading of produce must be done with care.

Packed produce must not be thrown from any vehicle.

 Storage of vegetables

•Storage of vegetables is of great importance since it tends

to stabilize prices by carrying produce from periods of high

production to periods of low production.

•Without storage the producer would be forced to put his

products on the market soon after harvest, regardless of the

demand.
 Requirements of storage
Successful storage requires: social security
•A good product equity
•Proper temperature and atmospheric humidity
•The right stage of maturity for the product to be stored
•Freedom from disease and other injuries
*.
A diseased or injured product usually deteriorates rapidly in storage,

especially under conditions favorable for the development of

storage rots

*. Specific rules for the best conditions for storage that will apply

to all products can’t be given because of difference in the

requirements.
 Types of Storage
Storing in the field

Field storage in trenches and pits and by mounding on the

surface of the ground is still practiced to some extent.

This kind of storage is advantageous in cooler areas/weather.

•Trenches are used for storing cabbage and celery
•Pits for cabbage, beets, potatoes and sweet potatoes
•All crops mentioned except celery are sometimes placed in piles
on the ground and covered with hay, straw, or other litter and
covered with a soil.

•The covering of the soil should be heavy enough to prevent severe

freezing

Field storage is unsatisfactory and giving way to other methods.

The main disadvantage of this method is:

•The temperature and moisture can’t be controlled, hence under

unfavorable conditions large losses are likely to occur

•The produce can be removed only with difficulty when the ground

is frozen, and this may prevent marketing at the time desired

•The product not removed may be injured when the pit or the

mound is opened during cold or wet weather

•The labor required to store and remove the product form the pit or
Storing in above ground houses

Common storage houses built entirely above ground are extensively

used in storing sweet potatoes, onions and cabbage.
The advantages of this type of storage over any of the others
mentioned are:-
•Moisture can be controlled more easily
•Products can be taken out and put in with less work and less
discomfort
•Grading and packing can be done to better advantage than from
field storage
Cold Storage

The main advantage of cold storage over common storage is in the

control of temperature and humidity.

In cold storage warehouses, the temperature can be kept at the

desired point regardless of the weather conditions provided that

the building has been constructed and equipped properly.

Cold storage is used for large part of celery, for lettuce, onions,

potatoes, carrots, beets, cabbage, cauliflower, etc.

Packaging and storage of Vegetables

Packaging fresh fruits and vegetables is one of the more important

steps in the long and complicated journey from grower to
consumer.

Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins, and palletized

containers are convenient containers for handling, transporting,
and marketing fresh produce.
Packing Materials

Packing materials used in storage perform several functions-

insulation against fluctuating temperatures, moisture retention, and

reduction of disease transmission.

In outdoor storages, clean straw, dry leaves, corn stalks, hay, or

sawdust are commonly used for insulation.

Cold storage of fruits and vegetables was used extensively by our

ancestors to keep food after the harvest season.

There are certain guidelines to follow which assure maximum

quality and minimum spoilage of stored food.

1. Harvest fruits and vegetables at peak maturity or as near as
possible.
2. Only use produce that is free from all visible evidence of
disease.
3. Do not pick any fruit or vegetable that has severe insect
damage.
4. Handle food carefully after harvest so that it is not cut or
bruised.
5. Leave an inch or more of stem on most vegetables to reduce
water loss and prevent infection.
6. Use late-maturing varieties better suited to storage.
Each fruit or vegetable has its own ideal set of conditions at which
it will store most successfully for the maximum length of time.
These conditions can be classified into four groups:
1. Vegetables which require cold & moist conditions
2. Vegetables which require cool & moist conditions
3. Vegetables which require cold & dry conditions
4. Vegetables which require warm & dry conditions
The tables on the following page list temperature and humidity
requirements for most vegetables.
The goal of storage is to keep them in a dormant state.
Fruits release ethylene, which speeds the ripening process of
 Optimal conditions for fresh vegetable storage

Vegetables Storage conditions

Temperature, °C Relative humidity,
%
Potatoes +1-+3 85-90
Carrots 0 -+1 90-95
Onions 0 -+1 75-85
Leeks 0 - +0.5 85-90
Cabbage -1 - 0 90-97
Garlic 0 - +1 85-90
Beets 0 -+1 90-95
Transportation and marketing of vegetables
Transportation and distribution of vegetables are the most
important.
Fast transportation with minimum damage during shipment is very
important in successful marketing of perishable.

For the local market tractor, trolleys and bullock-carts are used and
for a distant market transportation is mainly done by the road
although it is very costly.
Differing vegetables have widely varying requirements for their
safe preservation.

The rate at which living vegetables age and eventually submit to

senescence (old age), attack by micro-organisms and inevitable
demise depends upon the environmental status afforded during
storage and transit.
For safe carriage this will usually require that the commodities are
pre-cooled and maintained at that temperature prior to being
loaded into the transport unit, be it refrigerated ship, container or
other mode of transport.

Refrigerated systems used in transportation of commodities only

have the capacity to adjust minor reductions of, and to maintain,
the product temperature.
Marketing of horticultural crops is quite complex and risky due
to the perishable nature of the produce, seasonal production and
bulkiness.

The spectrum of prices from producer to consumer, which is an

outcome of demand and supply of transactions between various
intermediaries at different levels in the marketing system, is also
unique for vegetables.
Moreover, the marketing arrangements at different stages also play
an important role in price levels at various stages from farm gate
to the ultimate user.

These features make the marketing system of fruits and vegetables

to differ from other agricultural commodities, particularly in
providing time, form and space utilities.
CHAPTER 9

PROMOTION AND MARKETING OF VEGETABLES

9.1. Vegetable Production in Ethiopia

Although horticultural crops are important for health and economy the
amount and mode of production is still weak in Ethiopia.

Horticultural crops can be differentiated as fruit (permanent crops)

and vegetables (short season crops).

Accordingly permanent crops are long term crops that occupy the
field planted for a long period of time and largely harvested every
year and do not have to be replanted for several years after each
harvest.
Ethiopia has a variety of vegetable crops grown in different agro
ecological zones produced through commercial as well as small
farmers both as a source of income as well as food.

However, the type is limited to few crops and production is

concentrated to some pocket areas.

In spite of this, the production of vegetables varies from

cultivating a few plants in the backyards for home consumption up
to a large-scale production for domestic and export markets.
Market
Market can be defined as an area in which one or more sellers of
given products/services and their close substitutes exchange with
and compete for the patronage of a group of buyers.

Originally, the term market stood for the place where buyers and
sellers are gathered to exchange their goods
Marketing channel
Producers sell vegetables through different channels.
Formally, a marketing channel is a business structure of
interdependent organizations that reach from the point of product or
origin to the consumer with the purpose of moving products to their
final consumption or destination.

This channel may be short or long depending on kind and quality of

the product marketed, available marketing services, and prevailing
social and physical environment.
Marketing Constraints

The major marketing constraints include:

high postharvest losses

poor marketing and value chain development

weak linkages and integration among value chain actors.

.
Value chain governance

Governance refers to the role of coordination and associated roles of

identifying dynamic profitable opportunities and apportioning roles to
key players.

Value chains imply repetitiveness of linkage interactions.

Governance ensures that interactions between actors along a value

chain reflect organization, rather than randomness.
Benefit of Value Chain in Agricultural Sector

It is an innovation that enhances or improves an existing product,

or introduces new products or new product uses.

This allows the farmer to create new markets, or differentiate a

product from others and thus gain an advantage over competitors.
Ethiopian Horticulture Development Agency:

EHDA in order to provide a one-window service and to boost the

horticultural sector further, the EHDA has been established in the
year 2008, as an autonomous Federal Government Agency under the
Ministry of Agriculture.

The Agency is now exerting overall effort to strengthen the

development of the sector-emphasizing the areas of investment,
capacity building, and market and promotion supports.
Ethiopian Horticulture Producers Exporters Association:
EHPEA was established in September 2002, to represent the
interests of its members and promote the expansion of the
emerging horticulture export sector.

It is a non-profit making and nongovernmental organization whose

members are all registered businesses engaged in the production of
flowers, propagation, ornamental plants, fruit, vegetable and herb
for the export market.
Market for Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits and vegetables production in Ethiopia is scattered

throughout the country on patches of land in peasant small holders.

Whereas, large scale production and processing of fruits and

vegetables is carried out only by state organizations,
predominantly by the Horticulture Development Corporation
(HDC), which has been carrying out production and marketing
development activities since 1980.
. Promotion/Advertising and pricing of the Produce
Objectives:-

Understand the usage of target marketing.

Define and identify the elements of the marketing mix.

Define and identify the elements of the promotional mix.

Identify the forms of promotions most frequently used in real

estate.
Promotion: The activities which provide communication between
the seller of a property (real estate agent) and the many potential
buyers (target audience) of that property.

Communicating with potential customers to inform, persuade, or

remind them about a business’s products and services makes up
promotion.

A real estate agent will use the media, internet, flyers, magazines,
open houses, and Parade of homes to carry out their promotion
strategies.
Advertising: Any paid form of non personal presentation and
promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor the
real estate agent, in our case.

Most advertising is channeled through the media; broadcast or print.

Public Relations: Any activity designed to create a favorable image

toward a business, its products, or its policies.
Newspaper advertising:

Offers brokers the advantage of reaching a large percentage of the

local market at a relatively low cost on a daily basis.

It also provides flexibility in terms of rapid changes or additions

in advertisements.

Real estate firm’s use both classified and display newspaper ads.
Broadcast Media

Radio and television are examples of broadcast media, and are

typically the most expensive form of advertising.

Broadcast media, however, is being used more frequently by real

estate firms than in the past.
Sales promotion:

consists of many activities used to sell products.

They are activities that give consumers a short term incentive to make
a purchase.

Sales promotions are also activities that change the price and value
relationship of a product as perceived by the target audience with the
possible effect of generating immediate sales.
Consumer Promotions

Consumer promotions are geared toward getting consumers to try

a company’s products.
Vegetable marketing Opportunities and limitations in Ethiopia

Opportunities:

The strong positive drive from the Governmental side to support

the export horticulture implies a clear opportunity for growth and
development of the sector.
Limitations: -
1. Lack of markets to absorb the production
2. Low price for the products
3. Large number of middlemen in the marketing system
4. Lack of marketing Institutions safeguarding farmers' interest and
rights over their marketable produces
5. Lack of coordination among producers to increase their
bargaining power, poor product handling and packaging
6. Imperfect pricing system
7. Lack of transparency in market information system mainly in the
export market
8. Prevailing Informal transaction in the export system
9. Lack of appropriate production technology

•Capital and labor intensive

•Time sensitive and dynamic
•Lack of facilities in transport system
•Rain fed system of production and most of the production is from
the peasant farm
•Cereal focused research and extension
•Low consumption
Types of vegetable market outlets
Horticultural Producers

Producers are important participants in the supply chain since they

ensure the commodity is available for the initial transaction to take
place.

The smallholder producers do not have good marketing strategies for

their produce as they wait for traders to go and buy the commodity at
farm gate.
Agents/brokers – Intermediaries

The intermediaries or rural traders are involved in rural purchases

and transportation arrangements and sales at the terminal markets
or distribution points.
Transporters
They facilitate the movement of the commodity from the
production point to the consumption end.

Transportation of horticultural produce from the field is tedious

(carrying the produce on the head).
Wholesalers

These are the individuals found at the market place dealing with
bulk quantities of produce.

The wholesalers sell the produce to the retailers who then sell to
consumers.
Retailers

The retailer’s stock very small quantities of the commodity, mainly

due to high cost and limited demand among the users.

The units of measure at the retail point vary depending on the clients
and the quantities the retailers are able to afford.
Consumers
Different types of consumers are served through different market
channels.

The consumers in the domestic market and the regional market are
served by various channels depending on the type of commodity,
the location (urban versus rural) and wealth status (from slum
resident to up-class hotel guests) of the consumer.