AGRO – 111 SEM – I (N)

• Course Title : Fundamentals of Agronomy-I Credits : 2 (1+1)

• Meaning and scope of Agronomy:
• Agriculture:- is an art, science and the business of producing crops
and livestock for economic purposes.
• It includes crop production, livestock, farming, fisheries, forestry, etc.
• The term agriculture is derived from
• Latin word- ager or agri meaning is soil
• and cultura meaning is cultivation.
• Agronomy:- Study of plants in relation to soil and climate
OR
• It is a branch of agriculture that deals with the principles and practices
of crop production and field management.
• The term agronomy is derived from
• Greek words- agros meaning is field and
• nomos meaning is to manage.
• Father of Agronomy-Peter Descresenzi
 Scope : Scope means which things or at places we can apply the
knowledge of Agronomy. We can get all possible things
(production, yield) which are the basic needs of farmers or
producers .
• We can study the following contents…..
 Crop production - by maximizing our yield.
 Soil management - by improving soil fertility & productivity.
 Proper method of tillage - by using modern concept of tillage
(Minimum tillage, Zero tillage).
 Suitable time of sowing - most important for seed germination and
stability of plants.
 Proper method of sowing - (Drilling, dibbling, transplanting, BBF,
etc) for maintaining optimum plant population.
 Maintaining farm implements and machineries in proper shape.
 Management of livestock including their feeding,
 Management and disposal of farm and animal products like milk,
eggs, FYM, etc.
• Importance of Agronomy
• For getting higher yield, agronomy benefits in…
 Organic farming
 Sustainable agriculture
 Rearing of cows, buffaloes, bullocks, etc
 Forestry
 Mixed farming
 Poultry production
 Sheep and Goat rearing
 Mixed and Inter Cropping etc.
• Role of agronomist…..
He should know the deep knowledge of agronomy.
He should have the ability to convert his
theoretical knowledge into practical
application.
He is the coordinator of different SMS (subject
matter specialist) i.e.
Entomologist, Pathologist, Soil scientist, etc.
He is the consultant for the farmers.
He should have mastery in agriculture
production through research.
 Agronomist has well information of conducting
experiments on different aspects like
 Tillage operation
 Sowing time,
 Sowing methods
 Seed rate,
 Spacing,
 Fertilizer requirement,
 Weed management,
 Irrigation management,
 Pest and Disease Management,
 Cropping systems,
 Crop rotation,
 Harvesting and Yield, etc.
 Relationship of agronomy with other sciences
• Agronomy has a deep relation with the following sciences
(other sciences)…
 Soil science and agriculture chemistry
 Genetics and plant breeding
 Horticulture
 Crop physiology
 Animal husbandry and dairy science
 Agro meteorology
 Agriculture extension
 Agriculture engineering
 Agriculture economics
 Agro-forestry
 Statistics
 Basic science like Mathematics, Zoology, Ecology, etc
 Tillage and objectives of Tillage.
Tillage- The manipulation of soil with tools and
implements for loosening the surface crust and
bringing conditions favorable for the seed
germination and crop growth.
Father of tillage: Jethro Tull
 Objectives-
1. Suitable seed bed preparation.
2.To make the soil loose and porous (friable).
3. To remove weeds.
4. To mix manures and fertilizers.
5. To destroy insects and their eggs.
6. To aerate the soil.
7. To increase the soil temperature.
8. To remove stubbles.
9. To break down hard pan.
10. To incorporate organic manures.
11. To have repeated exchange of air and gases.
12. To conserve soil moisture.
13. Soil conservation to avoid soil erosion
14. Improvement of soil structure
15. Soil permeability
16. Root penetration
17. Soil Inversion
Types of tillage operations…
• I. Preparatory tillage
 Tillage operations which are carried out from the time of harvesting of the
previous crop to the sowing of the next crop are known as preparatory
tillage/ cultivation.
 1. Primary tillage – Ploughing (cutting and inverting the soil), clod
crushing, Land leveling, Discing, Manure mixing.
• 2. Secondary tillage/ Seedbed preparation
 After preparatory tillage the land is to be laid out properly for irrigating
crops if irrigation is available for sowing or planting seedlings which is
known as seedbed preparation.
 Harrowing
 Preparation of irrigation layouts – Ridges and Furrow, Flat beds, BBF, etc
 Sowing and covering of seeds
• 3. After cultivation/ Intercultural operations / Inter-tillage
 The tillage operations which are carried out in the standing crops. viz.
 i) Thinning ii) Gap filling iii) Weeding iv) Hoeing
 v) Top dressing of fertilizers vi) Earthing up etc.
Tools and implements used in tillage operations
1. Primary tillage implements: MB plough, Chisel plough, Desi
plough, Disc plough, Sub soil plough, leveler, scrapper, puddler, etc.
2. Secondary tillage implements: Cultivators, Blade harrow, Disc
harrow, spike tooth harrow, spring harrow, chain harrow, etc.
3. Inter-cultivation tillage implements: Country plough, rotary
weeder, wheel hoe, hoe, rakes, khurpies, kudali, paddy weeder, etc.
4. Off season tillage implements: Mole plough, sub-soil opener
(plough), ridge plough, mould board plough, etc.
5. Sowing and planting implements: Country plough, Seed drills,
ferti-cum seed drills , corn planter, rice planter, sugarcane planter,
potato planter, etc.
6. Specific purpose tillage implements: Ridger, furrow markers,
planks, rollers, etc.
7. Harvesting – Combine harvester, sickle, kudali etc.
Wooden Plough (Desi Plough)
Vakhar (Harrow)
Ferti-Cum Seed drill (Tifan)
Inter-cultivation implements a) Common Hoe b) Slit Hoe
Metla Guntka
 Factors influencing tillage operations:
• 1. Crop- root system, duration of crop, etc
• 2. Soil type- heavy, medium, light
• 3. Climate- heavy rains, hot Sunshine, humidity,etc
• 4. Farming type –irrigated or rainfed
 Effects of tillage on crop growth
 Loosens soil
 Optimum plant stand
 Increases depth of root penetration
 Reduce crop-weed competition
 Reduce insect-pest attack (damage)
 Availability of nutrients and moisture
 Soil Tilth and characteristics of good tilth
• Tilth - It is the physical condition of soil resulting from tillage and said
to be good when the soil is soft, friable and properly aerated.
• Characteristics of good soil tilth :
 It should have higher % of larger aggregates (more than 5 mm
diameter) for irrigated farming.
 It should have higher % of smaller aggregates (1-2 mm diameter) for
dry-land farming.
 Good soil tilth should be porous and has free drainage up to water
table.
 Micro-pores (capillary) and Macro-pores (non-capillary) should be in
equal proportion.
 The soil particles should not be easily eroded by water or wind.
 Soil should not be sticky when moist.
 Soil should permit easy infiltration of water.
Measurement of soil tilth - It can be measured by
1) Feel and appearance method –ribbon like
structure.
2) Pore space content – equally divided in micro and
macro pores.
3) Measuring size of soil aggregates – best size of soil
aggregates ranges from 1 to 6 mm.
(Aggregate means different sized soil particles)
• Modern Concept of Tillage.

1. Main aim of modern concept of tillage is to

minimize the cost of cultivation by reducing some tillage
operations.
2. Need of modern concept of tillage is very necessary
today.
3. In India maximum farmers are marginal according to
area and cost of cultivation increasing day by day.
4. So the Minimum and Zero tillage is helpful.

Modern concept includes : Minimum Tillage, Zero

Tillage and Stubble Mulch Tillage
  Modern Concept of Tillage.

Modern Preparatory tillage Seedbed Preparation

Concept

Primary Secondary

Minimum Carried out Reduced Reduced by combining Agril.

Tillage (1 instead of Operations
2 (like seeding and fertilizer application)
harrowing)
Zero Tillage Avoided Avoided Row zone only

Stubble Mulch Avoided 1 or 2 Covering the soil surface with crop

harrowing
residues or stubbles during the fallow
periods for protecting soil
 Stubble Mulch Tillage: Clean cultivation and
unnecessary ploughing lead to soil erosion due
to heavy rains and wind in the arid lands.
 A new approach has been developed for
protecting soils all the time either by growing
crops or spreading of crop residues.
 Covering the soil surface with crop residues or
stubbles during the fallow periods for protecting
soil is known as stubble mulch tillage or stubble
mulch farming.
• Seed and characteristics of good seed.
Seed : Seed is a any material used for sowing or planting or propagation of a
crop or multiplication.
It may be in the form of
Seed (food grains)
Seed/Seedlings (paddy)
Sets (sugarcane)
Tubers (potato)
Bulbs/seed (onion)
Rhizomes (turmeric)
Suckers/ tissue culture (banana)
Roots /seeds (carrot)
Cuttings (pomegranate)
Graft / seeds (mango)
Buds (Rose)
OR any other vegetatively propagated material.
 Characteristics/Qualities of good seed…
 It should be genetically pure.
 It should have high germination percentage.
 It should be free from any insect pests.
 It should be free from disease bearing organisms.
 It should be free from any admixture, dirt and inert
material.
 It should be free from noxious and objectionable weed
seeds.
 It should be clean, dry, bold, uniform in size and shape, etc.
 Seed Treatment and objectives of seed treatment.
 Seed Treatment - It is the process in which the seeds are treated before
sowing to overcome heavy losses due to natural and unforeseen
infections.
 Healthy seed materials, free from pests and diseases and having high
viability is essential for establishment of crop.
Objectives of seed treatment…
 Convenience in sowing.
 Disease control includes seed born, soil born and air born diseases.
 Insect control like white ants and other ants, termites.
 Quicker germination.
 Better yield.
 Protection against insects.
 Increasing nitrogen fixation.
 Inducing earliness (Vernalization).
(Vernalization – is the treatment in which the seeds are soaked in water
for inducing germination. By giving this treatment, the maturity period of
Name of Seed treatment Diseases
crops

1. Sorghum 300 mesh fine sulphar dust @ 3gm/kg of seed. Grain smut

2. Bajra 20 % brine solution (NaCl or common salt solution) Ergot

3. Rice 3 % brine solution. Blast

4. Wheat Thirum (Fungicide) @ 2.5 gm/kg of seed. Smut

5. Pulses/ Trichoderma viride @ 8-10 g/kg seed Fungal diseases/

other crops (Biocontrol act as a antifungal) post harvest
diseases
Seed viability is the ability or capacity of the seed to germinate.
Seed Dormancy- It is an internal condition of viable seed which does
not allow its actual germination, although suitable temperature,
moisture and aeration, etc are provided.
Causes of seed dormancy-
• Inadequate supply of oxygen due to poor soil aeration.
• Excess or deficiency of moisture in the soil.
• Lower or higher soil temperature than the requirement of the crop.
• Attack of insects, pests, diseases and birds on seed or newly
emerging seedlings.
• More or less depth of sowing than the optimum depth of sowing.
• Rough or poor seedbed preparation (Hard seedbed).
• Faulty seeds – seeds with poor germination, diseased seeds,
damaged seeds, etc.
 Types of Dormancy - there are 3 types.
1. Innate dormancy - occurs due to the genetic characters of the seed or due to hard
seed coat, immature embryo, etc.
2. Enforced dormancy - due to conditions of deficient oxygen, excess CO2 and deep
placement of seed in the soil, etc.
3. Induced dormancy – due to sudden physiological changes in seed by unfavorable
climatic conditions.

Methods of breaking seed dormancy - by

 Scarification- Hard seed coat is broken by chemical (by dipping seeds in dilute
solutions of HNO3, HCl or H2SO4) Or by mechanical means (by filling the seeds in
gunny bags and beating them to rupture the seed coat).
 Exposure of seed to light.
 Gas treatment.
 Soaking seeds in hot water - deep seeds in boiling water for 2-3 minutes.
 Stages of seed multiplication –
• Seed viability is the ability or capacity of the
seed to germinate.
• There are five stages of seed multiplication
1) Nucleus
seed
2) Breeder’s seed
3) Foundation seed
4) Certified seed
5) Truthful seed.
 • TYPES /STAGES OF SEED (CLASSES)
• The seeds are evolved, tested and if found good they are multiplied
and distributed to the farmers for commercial production of the crop.
• Therefore, according to the nature and precaution with which the
seeds are produced, they are classified in to the following groups/
Stages:
• 1. Nucleus seed

• 2. Breeders seed

• 3. Foundation seed

• 4. Certified seed

• 5. Truthful seed
 • 1. Nucleus seed
• It is the initial amount of pure seed of an improved variety available with
plant breeder who has involved it.
• Produced from basic nucleus stock
• Nucleus seed is sent percent pure genetically as well as physically and is
very limited in quantity
• Produced by the original breeder/ Institute/ State Agricultural University
(SAU)
• Small scale multiplication
• These seeds are of a high genetic value and being very little in quantity are
often costly.
• Pedigree Certificate issued by Breeder
• General standards:
• Genetic purity : 100 %
• Physical purity : 100 %
• Minimum germination : 98-100 %
• Maximum inert matter :0%
 • 2. Breeders seed:
• It is the seed obtained from the progeny of Nucleus seed
• It is directly supervised by the breeder concerned with the crop
• These seeds are produced at breeders level as a result of
hybridization, selection and mutation.
• When these seeds possess all required genetic characters they
are named as breeders seed.
• Its genetically and physical purity is 100 %.
• For testing the genetic purity, yield potentials, disease reaction
and adaptability the seed has to go for testing under a number of
trials in different agro-climatic conditions or zones of the
country.
• Each breeders seed has to be tested in Initial Evaluation Trial
(IET), National Trial, Uniform Regional Trial, District Trial and
finally under Mini-Kit programme and the varieties which
qualify in all the trials are further produced.
• Multiplied in large area as per indent of Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture
(Gov. of India) under supervision of plant breeder/
institute/ SAU’s and monitored by a committee
consisting of the representatives of state Seed
Certification Agency, National or State Seed
Corporation, ICAR nominee and concern breeder.
• Golden yellow colour certificate is issued.
• General standards:
• Genetic purity : 100 %
• Physical purity : 100 %
• Minimum germination : 98-100 %
• Maximum inert matter :0%
 • 3. Foundation seed:
• Progeny of Breeder seed. Large scale multiplication.
• The foundation seed is a second grade seed in order of its
genetic purity because there may be slight degeneration during
the process of multiplication of Breeders seed.
• Produced by Recognized Seed Producing agencies in public or
private sectors under the supervision of Certification agencies.
• The foundation seed is always produced by certain
organizations viz. National Seed Corporation, Tarai
Development Corporation and State Seed Corporation, etc.

• A strict seed plot technique which includes inspection,

roughing, weed control, isolation, etc., is adopted during seed
production process.
• The foundation seed is relatively less pure
compared to the breeders or nucleus seed.
• White colour certificate is issued.
• General standards:
• Genetic purity : 97-98 %
• Physical purity : >95 %
• Minimum germination : 70-85 %
• Maximum inert matter :2%
• Isolation: Self pollinated : 50-150 m
• Cross pollinated : 600-1200 m
 • 4. Certified seed:
• The certified seeds are produced from foundation seeds
mostly in two ways.
• In the first, seed is produced at the seed farms of the
National Seed Corporation or State Seed Farms or SAU’s.
• In the second, the seed is produced by registered growers
or certified farmers under growers programme.
• During the period of seed production the field is inspected
by the seed inspectors and the seed thus produced is
processed, bagged and tagged in the presence of the seed
technicians deputed by seed certifying agency.
• After proper labeling the seed is sold to the farmers for
commercial cultivation.
• The certified seed is relatively less pure compared
to the previous two seed categories.
• Large scale multiplication
• Blue colour certificate is issued.
• General standards:
• Genetic purity : 98 %
• Physical purity : >90 %
• Minimum germination : 60-80 %
• Maximum inert matter :2%
• Isolation: Self pollinated : 50-300 m
• Cross pollinated : 600-1600 m
 • 5. Truthful seed:
• The truthful seed produced by private seed
companies.
• It sold under truthful labels.
• Companies should maintain field and seed
standards suggested for quality seed
production as per seed act.
• Large scale multiplication
• Opal Green colour of seed tags.
 Methods sowing
• Sowing of crop is done by following methods
Broadcasting
Drilling or line sowing.
Dibbling
Transplanting
Planting
Putting the seeds in plough furrow.
 Plant population-
 It is defined as the number of plants per unit area.
 Optimum plant population of kharif Jowar is 1,48,148 plants/ha.
(plants per hectare)
 When in Jowar/ Sorghum spacing is 45 cm X 15 cm (Row to Row
and Plant to plant), plant population will be 1,48,148 plants/ha
 10000 m2
0.45X0.15 m2
 10000 m2
0.0675 m2
 1,48,148 plants/ha
 Pigeonpea plant Population 55,555/ha when spacing is 60 x 30
or 90 x 20 cm.
 Groundnut plant Population 3, 33,333/ha when spacing is 30 x
10 cm
Effect of plant population on plant growth and yield –
 Plant densities influence on crop growth considerably
 High density is conducive (favorable) for building up of
pests and diseases.
 At very high density, seedling mortality is common.
 High plant density may decrease protein and oil content.
 At high plant density lodging is more ( as thin stem).
 With increasing density, competition for light, height of
plant is increased.
 Widely spaced plants have circular root distribution.
 There is interpenetrated root growth at high density.
 More competition for nutrients, soil moisture, light, air,
etc.
 Crop/Planting geometry

 Crop geometry or plant geometry is the pattern of

distribution of plants over the ground or the
shape of the area available to the individual plant.
 It includes –
• 1) Solid planting 2) Paired planting and 3) Skipped
Row planting
1. Solid planting – sowing of crop on a solid
basis by drilling or dibbling method at same
spacing. (eg. Groundnut at 30 cm × 10 cm)
2. Paired planting – sowing of crop on a given
area in a specific paired arrangement.
(eg. Soybean at 45 cm × 5 cm, but skip the one
or two rows or Sugarcane planting).
3. Skipped Row planting – sowing of a crop in
a specific row pattern and add the other one
row of different crop in it.
(Sugarcane planting add another row of other
short durational crop eg Coriander).
 Manures and Fertilizers and its importance.
 Manures – it is a well decomposed refuse from stable and barn yards including
both animal excreta and straw or other litter.

 Fertilizers – these are industrially manufactured chemicals containing plant

nutrients which when added to the soil makes it productive and promotes plant
growth.

 Importance of manures and fertilizers –

• Manures and fertilizers are the main source of essential plant nutrients.
• Application of manures & fertilizers overcomes the deficiency symptoms of
nutrients.
• Manures increase the physical condition of soil thereby productivity increases
• Manures increase the fertility of the soil.
• Fertilizers increase the per hectare yield of crop.
• Fertilizers help in giving maximum output (yield) than manures.
• Application of some fertilizers is helpful in different climatological calamities like
in excess rainfall, in drought condition. Etc.
 • Manures and Fertilizers
• Plant analysis shows presence of about 90 elements though all of them
are not essential. Arnon (1954) has defined following criteria for
essentiality of any nutrient:
• 1. The plant cannot grow or complete its life cycle in absence of the
element
• 2. The element is very specific and cannot be replaced by another element
• 3. Element plays the direct role in metabolism
• Essential Plant Food Elements (Nutrients): 18
• C H O N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn Cu Zn B Mo Cl Co Na
• Classification of nutrient based on their relative abundance and not on
their relative importance.
• I) Macro (Major) Elements:
• 1. Primary Elements- N P K C, H, O
• (C-from CO2 in the air , O from air and water and H from water)
• N (from air and soil or both)
• P, K (Soil and chemical fertilizers)
• 2. Secondary Elements- Ca Mg S
 Essential Plant Food Elements (Nutrients): 18
Based on their relative abundance and not on their relative
importance
Sr. Macro (Major) Elements Macro (Major) Micro (Trace)
No. Elements Elements
Primary Elements Secondary Trace
Elements Elements
01 N (from air / soil or both) Ca Fe
02 P (from soil and Chemical fertilizers) Mg Mn

03 K (from soil and Chemical fertilizers) S Cu

04 C (from CO2 in the air) Zn

05 H (from water) B
06 O (from air and water) Mo
07 Co
08 Cl
09 Na
 Classification of manures and fertilizers with suitable examples.
• Mainly three basic types Organic, Inorganic and Biofertilizers…
 I) Organic (Natural) – includes
• Bulky organic manures
• FYM
• Compost
• Vermi-compost
• Green manure
• Sheep manure
• Sewage waste
• Sludge

• Concentrated organic manures

• Groundnut cake
• Linseed cake
• Neem cake
• Cotton seed cake
• Bone meal
• Meat meal
• Slaughter house refuse, etc
 I) Organic (Natural) – includes

Sr. No. Bulky organic manures Sr. No. Concentrated organic manures

01 FYM 01 Groundnut cake

02 Compost 02 Linseed cake
03 Vermi-compost 03 Neem cake

04 Green manure 04 Cotton seed cake

05 Sheep manure 05 Bone meal
06 Sewage waste 06 Meat meal
07 Sludge 07 Slaughter house refuse, etc
 II) Fertilizers : Inorganic (Artificial) – includes
Sr. Nitrogenous Phosphatic Potassic Others
No
01 Urea (46% N) SSP (16% P), 11% S MOP (60% K) Gypsum
02 Calcium nitrate DSP Sulphate of Lime
potash
03 Ammonium TSP (48 % P) Potassium Complex Fertilizers
sulphate nitrate
04 Ammonium nitrate Rock phosphate Mixed Fertilizers
05 Calcium ammonium Basic slag Macro (Ca, Mg, S)
nitrate
06 Row bone meal Micro (Zn, Fe, B,
Mn, Mo, Co, Cu, Cl,
Na, etc)
07
 III) Biofertilizer
Sr. III) Biofertilizes Crops
No.
01 Rhizobium Leguminous crops, pulses
02 Azotobacter Non-leguminous crops, cereals, Cotton
03 Azospirillum Sorghum, Maize, Bajra, etc
04 Acetobactor Sugarcane
05 PSB All crops
06 Blue green algae (BGA) Paddy/ Rice
07 Azolla Paddy/ Rice
08 VAM All crops
 Classification of Inorganic Fertilizers
Sr. Straight Straight Straight Complex Mixed Micronutrient
No Nitrogenous Phosphatic Potassic (N:P:K (N:P:K
Fertilizers Fertilizers Fertilizers content) content)

01 Urea (46%N) SSP (16% P) Muriate of DAP 18:18:10 Zinc Sulphate (21% Zn)
Potash (18:46:0)
(MOP)
(60% K)

02 Ammo.Sulpha TSP (48%P) Potassium 12:32:16 20:20:0 Borax (10.5% B),

te (20%N) Sulphate
(48% K)

03 Ammo.Nitrate Rock Phosp- 19:19:19 10:26:26 Solubor ( 19% B),

(18%N) hate (26% P)
04 17:17:17 Mangnese Sulphate
(30.5% Mn),
05 24:24:0 Ammonium molybdate
( 52% Mo),
06 28:28:0, Copper sulphate (24%
Cu),
07 20:20:0 Ferrous sulphate (19%
Fe), etc.
 Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and factors affecting on
nutrient use efficiency.
• Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) may be defined as yield per
unit input (Nutrient).
• In agriculture this is usually related to the input of fertilizer,
whereas in scientific literature the NUE is often expressed
as fresh weight or product yield per content of nutrient.
• The nutrients most commonly limiting plant growth are N,
P, K and S.
• NUE depends on the ability to efficiently take up the
nutrient from the soil, but also on transport, storage,
mobilization, usage within the plant and even on the
environment.
 Factors affecting nutrient use efficiency
1. Type of soil
2. Climate
3. Type of fertilizer
4. Time of fertilizer application.
5. Method of fertilizer application.
6. Quantity of fertilizer (How much ???)
7. Nutrient’s interaction.
• Define growth and development.
• Growth- may be defined as an irreversible permanent
increase in size, volume or mass of a cell or organ or
whole organism accompanied by an increase in dry
weight.
• Development- Plant development is an overall term
which refers to the various changes that occur in a
plant during its life cycle.
• In consideration of various horticultural crops and
products, Watada et al. (1984) proposed the following
definition of development: ‘the series of processes
from the initiation of growth to death of a plant or
plant part.’
•
• Growth Curve (Sigmoid curve) :
• It is ‘S’ shaped curve obtained when we plot
growth against time.
It is also called ‘sigmoid curve’.
• This curve mainly shows four phases of growth-
• 1. Lag phase - Initial slow growth occurs
• 2. Log phase/grand period of
growth/exponential phase - The rapid period of
growth where maximum growth is seen in a short
period.
• 3. Diminishing phase - where growth is seen slow.
• 4. Stationary/steady phase - where finally growth
stops.
• Factors affecting growth and development
 Genetic factors - (Internal factors)
 Genes
 Chromosomes
 Genomes etc.
 Environmental factors – (External factors)
1) Temperature 2) Moisture supply
3) Radiant energy 4) Composition of the
atmosphere
5) Soil aeration 6) Soil reaction
7) Biotic factors 8) Plant nutrients.
Plant ideotype and types of ideotype.
The term Ideotype was introduced by Donald
(1968).
 According to Donald plant ideotype- is a biological
model which is expected to perform or behave in a
predictable manner within a defined environment.
Synonyms of plant ideotype are model plant type,
Ideal plant type.
 Types of ideotype : 3 types
1. Isolation ideotype -
2. Competition ideotype -
3. Crop ideotype -
1. Isolation ideotype - The model which perform best
when the plants are space-planted. Isolation means
planting distance.
2. Competition ideotype - The model which perform
well in genetically heterogeneous (different) population.
The crops in this model are able to compete with its less
aggressive neighbors. Such ideotype crops have
following features viz. annual habit, tallness, leafy
canopy, tillering or branching, seed size, speed of
germination and root characters.
3. Crop ideotype - This ideotype performs best at
commercial crop densities because it is a poor
competitor. In case of cereals a crop ideotype is erect,
sparsely-tillered plant with small erect leaves
 Other types of plant ideotype:
1. Market ideotype - includes traits like seed
colour, seed size, cooking and baking qualities, etc.
2. Climatic ideotype - includes traits like heat and
cold resistance, maturity duration, drought
resistance, etc.
3.Edaphic ideotype – includes traits like salinity
tolerance, mineral toxicity, deficiency tolerance,
etc.
4.Stress ideotype – traits resistant to water stress.
5.Disease and pests resistance ideotype.
 Examples of crop ideotype -
• Wheat ideotype by Donald
• Rice ideotype by Jennings in 1964
• Maize ideotype by Mock and Pearce in 1975
• Cotton ideotype by Singh and Coworkers in
1974 for irrigated cultivation and
• Singh and Narayanan in 1993 for rainfed
condition.
• Crop Rotation :

• Crop rotation is the recurrent succession of

crops on the same piece of land either in a
year or over a longer period of time. OR
• It is a process of growing different crops in a
succession on a piece of land in a specific
period of time, with an objective to get
maximum profit from least investment
without impairing the soil fertility.
• Principles of crop rotation-
– The crop rotation should be adaptable to the
existing soil, climatic and economic factors.
– It should be cover all type of crops viz. cereals,
pulses, fodder etc.
– It should be helpful to the land by adding OM into
it.
– It should be arranged in a specific manner for
controlling weeds, diseases & insect-pests.
– It should give maximum yield and minimum soil
erosion.
– It should provide maximum employment to the
family as well as labors.
• Advantages of crop rotation:
• There is an overall increase in the yield of
crops.
• It adds organic matter (OM) content into the
soil.
• There is regular flow of income throughout the
year.
• It supply various needs of farmers & their
cattle.
• It supply the more nutrients into the soil.
• Crop rotation eg.
• Cotton – Jowar/Bajra – Groundnut
• Sugarcane – Rice – Gram
• Soybean – Jowar/Safflower/Gram
• Sunflower – Jowar- Gram
• Groundnut – Wheat – Vegetables
• Sorghum – Wheat – Green gram – Cotton –
Groundnut, etc.
• Crop adaptation and its Distribution.
 Crop adaptation –
 The ability of a crop (or variety) to respond positively to
changes in agricultural conditions.
 The trait is genetically controlled and provides an ability to
exploit environmental attributes, both natural and agronomic.
 Values of relative adaptability can be determined by the
regression of the yield of the tested crop over the average yield
of compared crops from several environments.
 Crop distribution –
 It is the transfer of crop or crop varieties or
new technology from one place to the another
place (locality).
• Factor responsible for crop adaptation and
distribution –
• 1) Physical – i) Climate – Temperature,
Growing Season, Altitude, Rainfall, Wind.
• ii) Soil
• iii) Slope of land
• 2) Human – i) Owner occupiers
• ii) Tenants or landless labourers
• iii) Market condition
• iv) Transport facilities
• v) Capital (money availability)
• vii) Technology
• viii) Government facilities (MSP, Government
policies), etc.
 Weed and its characteristics

• Weed – Any plant not sown in the field by farmer is out of

place called weed.
• Weed is an unwanted plant growing where it is not wanted
and it is extremely noxious, useless and poisonous.
• Characteristics of weeds…
• Weeds have high reproductive capacity.
• They thrive well under adverse climatic condition.
• They have morphological similarities with associated crops.
• They can protect themselves from animal and human being.
• They are harmful to crops, cattle and human being.
• Weed seeds have similarities with crop seeds.
• Weeds have competitive in nature. Etc.
• Classification of weeds on various bases

• Based on Life cycle.

• Based on Habitat or place of occurrence.
• Based on Dependence on other hosts.
• Based on Soil type.
• Based on plant family.
•
• A) Based on Life cycle -
• Annual - weeds complete their life cycle within a year. In kharif
season or in winter season x. Aghada, Hazardana etc
• Biennial - weeds require two years for completion of their life
cycle. Ex. Wild carrot etc.
• Perennials - weeds continue their life cycle for years together. Ex.
Lavala, Hariyali etc.
• Advantages (benefits) and Disadvantages
(damages/losses) of weeds.
• Advantages/ benefits of weeds
• Weeds add nutrients and organic matter into the
soil.
• Weeds are used as vegetables.
• Weeds serve as ornamental plants.
• Weeds control soil erosion.
• Weeds are useful as fodder for animals.
• Weeds are used in reclamation of alkali land.
• Weeds have medicinal value.
• Disadvantages/ damages/losses caused by
weeds
• Reduction in crop yield.
• Harm to animal and human being.
• Check the flow of water in irrigation water.
• Harbour insects and diseases.
• It increases the cost of cultivation.
• It reduces the quality of produce.
• Depreciate the land value, etc.
• Methods of weed control
• Classified in to two groups
 Preventive measures : It consists of…
• Use clean seed.
• Use well decomposed FYM/Compost.
• Cut the weeds before seeding.
• Keep irrigation and drainage channels clean or weed free.
• Clean all the farm implements before using.
 Curative / control measures: It includes
 Mechanical/Physical methods
 Cultural methods
 Biological methods
 Chemical methods
Physical method :
i) Hand weeding ii) Hoeing iii) Hand pulling
or up rooting by hands
iv)Burning v) Flooding

Cultural method :
i) Crop rotation ii) Kind of crops
iii) Use of fertilizers iv) Sowing Date and
seed rate, etc
 Biological method :
 Using of living organisms (insects) for controlling the weeds. .
•
• Bio-Agents (insects) Host weeds
• 1. Cochineal scale (insect) Prickly pear (Nagphana)
• 2. Moths Lantana camera (Ghaneri)
• 3. Zygograma bicolorata (beetle) Parthenium (Gajar gavat)

 Chemical : Using of different types of chemicals for the

control of weeds.
• 2,4-D, MCPA, Atrazine, Simazine, Glyphosate, Alachlor,
Diuron, Pendamethalin etc
• Herbicides and its classification .
• Herbicides are the chemicals used for weed
control and which suppress or destroy the
growth of weeds.
 Classification of herbicides –
• Based on chemical composition
• Based on selectivity
• Based on time of application
• Based on formulation
• Based on residual effect.
• Based on selectivity-
• 1) Selective
• i) Foliage : DNBP, Nitrofen, Propanil, 2,4-D, MCPA,
MCPB

• ii) Soil application: Simazine, Atrazine, Butachlor, MCPA,

Nitrofen, Dinitrophenols

• 2) Non-selective
• i) Foliage: Glyphosate, Paraquat, Dalapon, Sulphuric acid,
Sodium cloride

• ii) Soil application

• Soil fumigants –Cynamide, Methyl bromide
• Soil sterilents-NaCl, Atrazine
• Based on time of application
1. Pre-sowing or planting application
• Basalin, Fluchlralin
2. Pre-emergence application
• Pendamethilin, stomp, Lasso, etc
3. Post-emergence application
• Terga super, Tatamida, 2,4-D, etc
• Allelopathy or allelopathic effect of weed –
• Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon by which an
organism produces one or more biochemicals that influence
the germination, growth, survival and reproduction of other
organisms.

• These biochemicals are known as allelochemicals and can

have beneficial (positive allelopathy) or detrimental
(negative allelopathy) effects on the target organisms and the
community, eg. Psidic acid (Tur)

• Some weeds also secrete the chemicals from their roots into
the soil. These chemicals are mostly harmful to the other
crops. Thereby ultimately it cause effect on crop growth &
development.
• Harvesting, sign of maturity of Cereals, Pulses and Oilseed.
 Harvesting:
The process of separating crop plants from the field OR
The removal of entire plants or economics parts after maturity from the
field is known as harvesting.
 Sign of maturity of cereals:
– All the plant parts become dry.
– Generally yellowing and drying of leaves and stems occurs.
– When ear head is pressed in between palms, seeds come out from
capsule.
– Grains break down into two or more pieces if pressed under teeth,
etc.
 Sign of maturity of pulses:
• Pods give peculiar noise when shacked in hands.
• Drying of leaves and stems
• Falling of leaves on ground
• Grains break down into two pieces (cotyledons) when pressed under
 Sign of maturity of Oilseeds:
• 80-90 % seed pods turn yellow to dark brown
or black from green.
• Leaves turn yellow.
• Drying of leaves and stems takes place
• Falling of leaves on ground
• Grains break down into pieces when pressed
under teeth.
• Bracts surrounding the sunflower head change to
brown.
 Physiological maturity and harvesting maturity
 Physiological maturity - is the developmental
stage after which no further increase in dry
matter which occurs in the economical part.
 Translocation or photosynthesis is stopped.
The economical part at the physiological
maturity stage.
 Harvesting maturity - It occurs generally seven
days (one week) after physiological maturity.
 Loss of moisture from the plant occurs at this
stage.
• Threshing and its methods

 Threshing- The process of separating grains from

earheads is known as threshing.
• Methods of threshing crops :
• Beating: threshing of ear head is done by beating with
stick.
• Use of bullock power: threshing is done under the feet
of bullock on threshing yard.
• Use of hand driven machinery : eg Maize Sheller,
Paddy foot thresher etc.
• Use of power driven machinery: By Tractor, Thresher
etc.
 Cleaning, drying and Storage of field crops.
Cleaning – after threshing of earheads, grain
should be separated from the bhusa. For this
purpose we can use natural wind or artificial
wind by holding the threshed grains against wind.

Drying – grains should be dried in bright sunshine

to remove excess moisture for keeping the
quality of grains (12 %) .
Storage – we can store the grains in gunny bags,
containers, storage house, bins, pots etc. for the
purpose of future use.