THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM I

Prasetyastuti
Dept Of Biochemistry
FACULTY OF MEDICINE UGM
 TOPIC

1. Respiratory Tract
2. Pulmonary Ventilation
3. Lung volumes and capacities
4. Gas Exchange
5. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
6. Respiratory Control
7. Disorders on Respiratory System
 1. Respiratory Tract

The Respiratory system consist of

I. Structurally
1. The upper respiratory system
a. Nose
b. Pharynx ( throat)

2. The lower respiratory system

a. Larynx
b.Trachea
c. Bronchi
d. Lungs
II. Functionally
1. The conducting zone
a . nose
b. pharynx ( throat)
c. larynx
d. trachea
e. bronchi
f. bronchioles and terminal bronchioles
-- filter, warm, moisten air and conduct it into
the lungs
2. The respiratory zone
a. respiratory bronchioles
b. alveolar ducts
c. alveoli

- gas exchange between air and blood

The function of Respiratory system :

- gas exchange
- participates in regulating blood pH
- contains receptor for the sense of smell
- filters inspired air
- produces sounds
- rides the body of some water and heat in
exhaled air
NOSE
- The External nose :
The bony framework
- the frontal bone,
- nasal bones
- maxillae
The cartilaginous framework
- the septal cartilage
- the lateral nasal cartilages
- the alar cartilages
The function of the interior structures of the
external nose :
1. warming, moistening, and filtering incoming
air
2. detecting olfactory stimuli
3. modifying speech vibrations

The NASAL CAVITY (nose) is the preferred

entrance for outside air into the Respiratory
System. The hairs that line the inside wall are
part of the air-cleansing system.
PHARYNX (throat)

The functions :
- A passageway for air and food.
- Provides a resonating chamber for speech
sound
 House the tonsil, which participate in immuno
logical reactions against foreign invaders.

- Collects incoming air from the nose and passes

it downward to the trachea (windpipe).
The region of the pharynx
1.Nasopharynx : the superior portion
2.Oropharynx
3.Laryngopharynx

The muscles of the entire pharynx :

an outer circular layer
an inner longitudinal layer
Nasopharynx :
 the superior portion of the pharynx
 Lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends
to the soft palate
 Receives air from the nasal cavity
 There are 5 openings in its wall
- 2 internal nares
- 2 openings that lead into the auditory
tubes
- 1 opening into the oropharynx
Oropharynx

- the intermediate portion of the pharynx

 lies posterior to the oral cavity and extends
from the soft palate inferiorly to the level of
the hyoid bone
 has respiratory and digestive functions
- serving as a common passageway for air, food,
and drink
- two pairs of tonsils, the palatine and lingual
tonsils.
-
Laryngopharynx /hypopharynx
Inferior portion of the larynx
A respiratory and a digestive pathway
LARYNX/VOICE BOX
 a short passageway that connects the
laryngopharynx with the trachea

-the wall of the larynx is composed of 9

pieces of cartilage:
- 3 occur singly (thyroid ,epiglottis and
cricoid cartilage)
- 3 occurs in pairs (arytenoid, cuneiform
and corniculate cartilages)
- contains the vocal cords. It is the place
where moving air being breathed in and out
creates voice sounds.

The extrinsic muscles of the larynx

connect the cartilages to other structures
in the throat.

The intrinsic muscles connect the

cartilages to one another.
The thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple)

- present in males & females, but large in male

due to the influence of male sex hormones
on its growth during puberty
The epiglottis
- leaf shaped pieces of elastic cartilage that
is covered with epithelium
- during swallowing, the pharynx and the larynx
rise
- elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive
food of drink
- elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis
to move down and form a lid over the glottis,
closing it off.
- the closing of the larynx in this way
during swallowing route liquids and
foods into the esophagus and keep them
out of the larynx and airways

The EPIGLOTTIS is a flap of tissue that

guards the entrance to the trachea,
closing when anything is swallowed that
should go into the esophagus and
stomach.
When dust, smoke, food or liquids pass into the
larynx---- cough reflex occurs, usually
expelling the material

The cricoid cartilages

 Is a ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the
inferior wall of the larynx
 The thyroid cartilage is connected to the
cricoid cartilage by the Cricothyroid ligament
The paired arytenoid cartilage
 Attach to the vocal folds and intrinsic pharyngeal
muscles.
 intrinsic pharyngeal muscles contract and move
the vocal folds to produce sounds

The paired corniculate cartilage:

supporting structures for the epiglottis

The paired cuneiform cartilage :

support the vocal folds
The ESOPHAGUS is the passage leading from the
mouth and throat to the stomach.

TRACHEA/WINDPIPE
: is the passage leading from the pharynx to the lungs
The layers of the tracheal wall are
a. mucosa
b. submucosa
c. hyaline cartilage :
d. adventitia : joins the trachea to surrounding tissues
BRONCHI

The trachea divides into the two main

BRONCHI (tubes), one for each lung. These, in
turn, subdivide further into bronchioles
- the trachea divides into :
a. a right primary bronchus
---- goes into the right lung
more vertical, shorter, and wider than
the left
b. a left primary bronchus
---- goes into the left lung
The primary bronchi divide to form smaller bronchi—
the secondary bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung
- the right lung has three lobes
 The left lung has two lobes

The secondary bronchi continue to branch, forming

smaller bronchi --- tertiary bronchi -
divide into bronchioles---- terminal bronchioles
--bronchial tree

The smallest subdivisions of the bronchi are called

BRONCHIOLES, at the end of which are the alveoli
(plural of alveolus).
LUNGS

- a paired cone-shaped organs in the toracic

cavity
Pleural membrane : enclose and protect each
lung
Parietal pleura : the superficial layer
Visceral pleura : covers the lungs themselves
Pleural cavity : between the visceral and
parietal pleurae contains a
small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by
the membranes - slide easily over one
another during breathing.
Pleurisy/ pleuritis : inflammation of the
pleural membrane
Pleural effusion : excess fluid
accumulates in the pleural space

The DIAPHRAGM is the strong wall of

muscle that separates the chest cavity
from the abdominal cavity. By moving
downward, it creates suction to draw in
air and expand the lungs.
ALVEOLI
: the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air spaces in
the lungs and the blood takes place by diffusion
across the alveolar and capillary walls
The lungs contain 300 million alveoli, surface area 70 m2

The walls of alveoli consist of two types of alveolar

epithelial
1. Type I alveolar cells : the main sites of gas exchange
2. Type II alveolar cells : secrete alveolar fluid
(surfactant: lowers the surface tension of alveolar
fluid , which reduces the tendency of alveoli to
collapse )
The respiratory membrane consists of
four layers
1. A layer of type I and type II alveolar
cells and associated alveolar
macrophages that constitutes the
alveolar wall
2. An epithelial basement membrane
underlying the alveolar wall
3. A capillary basement membrane that is
often fused to the epithelial basement
membrane
4. The capillary endothelium
The ALVEOLI are the very small air sacs
that are the destination of air breathed
in.
The CAPILLARIES are blood vessels that
are imbedded in the walls of the alveoli.
Blood passes through the capillaries,
brought to them by the PULMONARY
ARTERY and taken away by the
PULMONARY VEIN.
Blood supply to the lungs

The lungs receive blood via :

 Pulmonary arteries and bronchial arteries

 Deoxygenated blood passes through the

pulmonary trunk( left pulmonary artery - enter
the left lung and right pulmonary artery - enter
the right lung)

 Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood

-
 Return of the oxygenated blood to the heart
by way of the four pulmonary veins, which drain
into the left atrium

 Bronchial arteries
deliver oxygenated blood to the lungs
2. PULMONARY VENTILATION
Respiration : the process of gas exchange in
the body
1. Pulmonary ventilation / breathing
the inhalation and exhalation of air between
the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs

2. External respiration : the exchange of gases

between the alveoli and the blood in
pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory
membrane –--pulmonary capillary blood
gains O2 and loses CO2
3. Internal respiration
The exchange of gas between blood in systemic
capillaries and tissue cell
--- the blood loses O2 and gains CO2

Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation

* Air pressure differences during inhalation and
exhalation
* Surface tensions of alveolar fluid
* Compliance of the lungs
* Airway resistance
Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation

Inhalation
Just before each inhalation,
the air pressure inside the lungs is equal to
the air pressure of the atm -- + 760 mmHg
( 1 atm)

For air to flow into the lungs-- the pressure

inside the alveoli must become lower than the
atm pressure ---- by increasing the volume of
the lungs.
Boyle’s law : inverse relationship between
volume and pressure

The same number of molecules in half the

volume produces twice the pressure

The main muscle of inhalation is

- the diaphragm (the most important muscle )
- external intercostals
contraction of the external intercostals is
responsible for about 25 % of the air enters
the lungs during normal quiet breathing.
During normal quiet breathing.
The diaphragm descends about 1 cm producing a
pressure difference of 1-3 mm Hg and the
inhalation about 500 ml of air

In strenuous breathing
Diaphragm descend 10 cm -- produces a
pressure difference of 100 mmHg and the
inhalation 0f 2-3 liters of air
Contraction of the diaphragm is responsible for
about 75 % of the air that enters the lungs
Exhalation : breathing out: expiration

• The pressure in the lungs is greater than

the pressure of the atmosphere
Passive process because no muscular
contractions.

• Starts when the inspiratory muscles relax

* Becomes active only during forceful breathing

(exercise )--- muscle of exhalation – the abdominals
and internal intercostals -- contract---
Pressure in the abdominal region & thorax increases
Surface tension of Alveolar Fluid
Surface tension arises at all air-water
interfaces because the polar water molecules
are more strongly attracted to each other
than they are to gas molecules in the air.

During breathing,
-- surface tension must be overcome to expand
the lungs during each inhalation
During exhalation
---surface tension also accounts for two-thirds
of lung elastic recoil, which decreases the size
of alveoli
The surfactan
- a mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins
- present in alveolar fluid reduces its surface
tension below the surface tension of pure
water
- deficiency of surfactant in premature
infants causes respiratory distress
syndrome the alveoli do not remain open
due to a lack of surfactan
- Administered directly into the lungs oxygen
1. The surface tention of alveolar fluid is
greatly increases- alveoli collapse
2. The condition is also more common in
infants whose mother have DM, in
male.
* Compliance of the lungs
Compliance refers to how much effort is
required to stretch the lungs and chest wall
--- high compliance : the lungs and chest wall
expand easily
---low compliance : resist expansion

Two principle factors :

- elasticity and
- surface tension
The lungs normally have high compliance and
expand easily -- because
- elastic fibers in lung tissue are easily
stretched and
- surfactant in alveolar fluid reduces surface
tension
Decreased compliance is a common feature in
pulmonary conditions
1. scar lung tissue ( TB)
2. cause lung tissue to become filled with fluid
3. produce a deficiency in surfactant
4. impede lung expansion in any way
Airway resistance
Depends of
- the pressure difference
- the resistance
- the degree of contraction or relaxation of
smooth muscle in the wall of the airway

During inhalation the lungs expand, the

bronchioles enlarge because their walls are
pulled outward in all direction.
Larger diameter airways --- decreased
resistance
During exhalation – airway resistance
increase ---Diameter of bronchioles
decreases.
3. Lung volumes and capacities
At rest a healthy adult averages 12 breaths /minute
Each inhalation and exhalation moving about 500 ml
of air into and out of the lungs

Tidal Volume ( VT) : volume of one breath

The minute ventilation (MV) :

The total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each
minute
MV = 12 breath/min X 500 ml/breath
= 6 liters/min
Tidal volume
In a typical adult :
70% of tidal volume (350 ml) actually reaches
the respiratory zone of the respiratory
system

30% (150 ml) remains in the conducting airways

of the nose, pharynx, larynx,trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles
Lung capacities:
Combinations of specific lung volumes

The sumInspiratory capacity

of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
In males : 500 ml + 3100 ml = 3600 ml
In females : 500 ml + 1900 ml = 2400 ml
Functional residual capacity
The sum of residual volume and expiratory
reserve volume
In males : 1200 ml + 1200 ml = 2400 ml
In females : 1100 ml + 700 ml = 1800 ml

Vital capacity
The sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal
volume, and expiratory reserve volume
In male : 4800 ml
In female : 3100 ml
Total lung capacity
The sum of vital capacity and residual volume
In male 4800 ml + 1200 ml – 6000 ml
In female 3100 + 1100 = 4200 ml