SCI212: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The Respiratory System - BSED Science 2B Notes

ABSTRACTION
Most of the respiratory system is concerned with what we think of as breathing: moving air into
and out of the lungs.
Some facts:
● The respiratory system consists of the structures used to acquire O2 and remove CO2
from the blood.
● All cells in the body require O₂ to synthesize the chemical energy molecule, ATP.
● CO₂ is a by-product of ATP production and must be removed from the blood.
● Increased levels of CO2 will lower the pH of the blood
The lungs are the site of the exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the
blood. This major function of the respiratory system is called respiration.
Respiration includes the following processes:
1. ventilation, or breathing, which is the movement of air into and out of the lungs;
2. the exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the air in the lungs and
the blood;
3. the transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood; and
4. the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and the tissues.
(Note: It can be confusing to hear the term respiration alone because sometimes it also refers
to cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration; in fact, the two processes are directly related.
Breathing provides the O2 needed in cellular respiration to make ATP from glucose.)

OTHER FUNCTIONS:
1. Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory system can alter blood pH by changing blood
CO2 levels.
2. Voice production. Air movement past the vocal cords makes sound and speech possible.
3. Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the
nasal cavity.
4. Innate immunity. The respiratory system protects against some microorganisms and
other pathogens, such as viruses, by preventing them from entering the body and by
removing them from respiratory surfaces.
Divisions of the respiratory system:
1. Upper respiratory tract - consists of the parts outside the chest cavity: the air passages
of the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, and upper trachea.
2. Lower respiratory tract - consists of the parts found within the chest cavity: the lower
trachea and the lungs themselves, which include the bronchial tubes and alveoli.

¹ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Nose
External nose
The visible part of the nose, made mostly of hyaline cartilage. It has two openings called nostrils
(external nares) on the underside.
Nasal Cavity - The internal space within the nose. It extends from the nostrils to the choana,
which are openings leading to the pharynx.
- The hard palate forms the roof of the nasal cavity.
- The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into two halves.
Functions:
- Warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air: Hair, mucus, and cilia in the nasal cavity
trap dust, dirt, and other particles. The air is also warmed and moistened as it passes through.
- Detecting olfactory stimuli: The nasal cavity contains olfactory receptors that detect smells.
- Modifying speech vibrations: The shape of the nasal cavity influences the sound of our voice.
2. Pharynx
- also called throat
- The passageway for air and food. It also functions as a resonating chamber for speech sounds
and houses the tonsils.
Three anatomical regions:
- Nasopharynx: The upper part of the pharynx, involved in breathing only.
- Oropharynx: The middle part of the pharynx, involved in both breathing and swallowing as air,
food, and liquids pass through it.
- Laryngopharynx: The lower part of the pharynx, connecting to the esophagus and larynx. It's
involved in both breathing and swallowing.

3. Larynx
- also called voice box
- Located in the neck, anterior to the esophagus. It's made of 9 cartilages.
- Thyroid cartilage: The largest cartilage, known as the Adam's apple.
- Epiglottis: A flap that covers the trachea during swallowing, preventing food and liquids from
entering the airway.
Function:
- Passageway for air: The larynx is part of the airway leading to the lungs.
- Sound production: The larynx produces sound by modifying air vibrations as we speak.

4. Trachea
- also called windpipe
- A tube connecting the larynx to the lungs. It's made of 16-20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage
called tracheal rings.
- Lining: The trachea is lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
- Cilia: Tiny hair-like structures that help to move mucus and trapped particles upward, away
from the lungs.
- Smoking damages cilia: Smoking destroys cilia, making it more difficult to clear the airway.
- Function:
- Air passageway: The trachea carries air to and from the lungs.
- Coughing: Coughing helps dislodge materials from the trachea.
- Trachealis muscle: This muscle allows the trachea to slightly expand and contract, helping to
regulate airflow.

5. Bronchi- basically an extension of trachea which carries air to and from your lungs. The
trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi or "primary bronchi", each of which
connects to your lungs. It is located at the superior boarder of the fifth thoracic vertebra.
-Like the trachea, the primary bronchi contain incomplete rings of cartilage and are lined
by pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
- The left main bronchus is more horizontal than the right because it is displaced by the
heart. Foreign objects that enter the trachea usually looped in the right main bronchus because
it is wider, shorter and more vertical than the trachea.
● Bronchial Tree / Tracheobronchial Tree
-primary bronchi: divide to form smaller bronchi– "secondary (lobar) bronchi" , one for
each lobe of the lungs.
-secondary (lobar) bronchi: continue to branch,forming still smaller bronchi called
tertiary (segmental) bronchi.
-tertiary (segmental) bronchi: divides into bronchioles.
-bronchioles: branch repeatedly into smaller one called terminal bronchioles .
-terminal bronchioles: subdivides into microscope branches called respiratory
bronchioles .
-respiratory bronchioles: in turn, subdivide into several alveolar ducts.
-alveolar ducts: are numerous alveolar sacs and alveoli.
 -alveoli
● Changes in air passageway diameter
-Bronchodilation -the smooth muscle arround bronchioles relaxes, allowing our airways
to be larger in diameter.
-Bronchoconstriction -smooth muscle around bronchioles contracts, making our
bronchiol diameters smaller.
-Asthma attack -construction of terminal bronchioles resulting to reduced air flow.

6. Alveoli- sites of external respiration/functional units of the lungs.

-small air-filled sacs where the air and blood came into closed contact where gas
exchange actually happen and is surrounded by capillaries.
-The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air spaces in the lungs and blood takes
place by diffusion across the alveolar and capillary walls. The species between clusters of alveoli
is elastic connective tissue important for exhalation.
- Within the alveoli are macrophages that phagocytes pathogens or other foreign
material that may not have been swept out by ciliated epithelium of the bronchial tree.
-there are 300 millions of alveoli in the human lungs.

7. Lungs- principal organ of respiration.

-located on either side of the heart in chest cavity and are encircled and protected by the
rib cage.
-cone shaped
-the base rest on the diaphragm
-the apex extends above the clavicle
-right lung has three lobes and left lung has two lobes. Each lobe is divided into bronco
pulmonary segments (tree).
-contains many air passageway
-Medial Surface= called hilus where primary bronchus and pulmonary artery and veins
enter the lung.

Respiratory membrane of the lungs

● site of gas exchange between the air and blood
● formed mainly by the walls of the alveoli and the capillaries
● very thin, to facilitate the diffusion of gases
● consists of six layers:
1. a thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus - A fluid containing surfactant that reduces
surface tension and prevents the alveoli from sticking together.
2. the alveolar epithelium, composed of simple squamous epithelium - A single layer of
thin, pancake-shaped cells that line the alveoli.
3. the basement membrane of the alveolar epithelium - A network of cartilage and
supportive material that anchors the alveolar wall in place.
4. a thin interstitial space - A small space between the alveolar epithelium and the
capillary membrane.
5. the basement membrane of the capillary endothelium - Anchors the capillary wall in
place.
6. the capillary endothelium, composed of simple squamous epithelium - A single layer of
squamous cells that make up the wall of the capillaries.
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
● Pleural cavity: space around each lung
● Pleura: double-layered membrane around lungs
● Parietal pleura: membrane that lines thoracic cavity
● Visceral pleura: membrane that covers lung's surface
The pleural cavity is filled with a small volume of pleural fluid produced by the pleural
membranes.
Functions of the pleural fluid:
● acts as a lubricant
● helps hold the pleural membranes together
The pleural fluid acts similarly to a thin film of water between two sheets of glass (the visceral
and parietal pleurae); the glass sheets can slide over each other easily, but it is difficult to
separate them.

²GAS EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES

GAS EXCHANGE
There are two sites of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide:
● Lungs
● Tissues of the body
External Respiration/Pulmonary Gas Exchange – is the diffusion of O2 from alveoli of the lungs
to blood in pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction i.e. from
blood in pulmonary capillaries to alveoli of lungs.
● External respiration converts deoxygenated blood into oxygenated blood in the lungs.
● As blood flows through the pulmonary capillaries, it picks up O2 from lungs and unloads
CO2 into lungs.
In simple terms;
● Location: Takes place in the lungs.
● Process: Oxygen (O₂) from the air we breathe in moves from tiny air sacs called alveoli
into the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide (CO₂), a
waste gas from the body, moves from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.
● Outcome: Blood is "recharged" with oxygen and releases CO₂, transforming
deoxygenated blood into oxygenated blood.
Internal Respiration/Systemic Gas Exchange - is the exchange of gases between the blood in
the systemic capillaries and the tissue fluid (cells) of the body.
● As O2 leaves the bloodstream, oxygenated blood is converted into deoxygenated blood.
● Unlike external respiration, which occurs only in the lungs, internal respiration occurs in
tissues throughout the body.
In simple terms;
● Location: Takes place in body tissues throughout the body.
● Process: Oxygen-rich blood flows from the lungs to the tissues, where oxygen moves
from the blood into the cells for energy use. Cells release CO₂ as waste, which enters the
blood to be carried back to the lungs.
● Outcome: Oxygenated blood becomes deoxygenated as it delivers oxygen to the tissues
and picks up CO₂.
The rate of pulmonary and systemic gas exchange depends on several factors:

∙ Partial pressure difference of the gases:

- The concentration of each gas in a particular site (alveolar air, pulmonary blood, and so
on) is expressed in a value called partial pressure measured in mmHg. (The abbreviation
for partial pressure is “P”).
- Within the body, a gas will diffuse from an area of greater concentration to an area of
lesser concentration.
- The air in the alveoli has a high PO2 and a low PCO2. The blood in the pulmonary
capillaries, which has just come from the body, has a low PO2 and a high PCO2.
- Because of this difference in partial pressure, oxygen moves from the alveoli (where the
partial pressure is higher) into the blood (where the partial pressure is lower).
∙ Surface area available for gas exchange:
- The larger the surface area for gas exchange (where gases like oxygen and carbon
dioxide move between the lungs and blood), the faster the exchange can happen.
∙ Diffusion distance:
 - The shorter the distance between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries,
the faster gases can diffuse (move) across.

Step-by-Step Circulation and Gas Exchange Process

The image shows the process of blood circulation and gas exchange in the body, focusing on the
movement of oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) between the lungs, heart, and body tissues.
Here’s the full breakdown:
1. Blood Flow to the Lungs (Pulmonary Circulation):
o Blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide is pumped from the right side of
the heart through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
o In this deoxygenated blood, the partial pressure of oxygen (Pₒ₂) is 40 mmHg, and
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Pcₒ₂) is 45 mmHg.
2. Gas Exchange in the Lungs (External Respiration):
o In the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs), there is a high concentration of oxygen
(Pₒ₂ = 105 mmHg) and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide (Pcₒ₂ = 40
mmHg).
o Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the blood in the pulmonary capillaries,
while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.
o After this exchange, the blood leaving the lungs has a higher oxygen level (Pₒ₂ =
100 mmHg) and a lower carbon dioxide level (Pcₒ₂ = 40 mmHg).
3. Oxygenated Blood to the Body (Systemic Circulation):
o This oxygen-rich blood travels from the lungs to the left side of the heart
through the pulmonary veins.
o The left heart pumps the oxygenated blood into the aorta and then through the
arteries to reach body tissues.
4. Gas Exchange in Body Tissues (Internal Respiration):
o As blood flows through systemic capillaries in the body’s tissues, oxygen diffuses
from the blood into the cells, where it’s used for energy production.
o Carbon dioxide, a byproduct of cellular metabolism, diffuses from the cells into
the blood.
o After this exchange, the blood leaving the tissues has a lower oxygen level (Pₒ₂ =
40 mmHg) and a higher carbon dioxide level (Pcₒ₂ = 45-50 mmHg).
5. Return of Deoxygenated Blood to the Heart:
o This deoxygenated blood returns to the right side of the heart through the veins
and vena cavae. The right heart then pumps the blood back to the lungs, starting
the cycle again.
In simple terms;
Blood Flow to the Lungs: Deoxygenated blood, low in O₂ and
high in CO₂, flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs
through pulmonary arteries.
1. Gas Exchange in the Lungs: In the alveoli, oxygen
levels are high, and CO₂ levels are low. Oxygen moves
into the blood, and CO₂ moves into the alveoli to be
exhaled.
2. Oxygenated Blood to the Body: Oxygen-rich blood
travels from the lungs to the left side of the heart and
is pumped through the arteries to the body.
3. Gas Exchange in the Body Tissues: Oxygen diffuses
from the blood into cells for energy, while cells release
CO₂ into the blood.
4. Return of Deoxygenated Blood to the Heart: The
blood, now low in oxygen and high in CO₂, returns to
the right side of the heart to be pumped back to the lungs, where the cycle begins again.
TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES
Oxygen Transport
When you breathe in, oxygen (O₂) moves from your lungs into your blood. There are two main
ways oxygen is transported in the blood:
- Dissolved in Blood Plasma (1.5%): A small amount of oxygen is simply dissolved in the
liquid part of the blood (plasma).

- Bound to Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells (85%): Most oxygen attaches to a protein in
red blood cells called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin has iron in it, and each iron atom can
bind to one oxygen molecule, forming oxyhemoglobin.
Explanation: Oxygen transport primarily occurs in two ways: about 1.5% of oxygen dissolves in
the blood plasma, while the majority (98.5%) binds reversibly to hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood
cells, forming a compound called oxyhemoglobin.
How oxygen binds and releases from hemoglobin:
● Partial Pressure of Oxygen (PO₂): In the lungs, the oxygen levels are high, so oxygen
binds easily to hemoglobin. In tissues (like muscles), where the oxygen levels are lower,
oxygen gets released from hemoglobin and moves into the cells.
Explanation: The most important factor that determines binding and dissociation of O2
with hemoglobin is PO2. The higher the PO2, the more O2 combines with Hb. PO2 is
higher in pulmonary capillaries (100 mmHg), therefore binding of O2 and Hb takes place.
The PO2 is lower in tissue capillaries (40 mmHg), therefore oxyhemoglobin dissociates
into O2 and Hb. The O2 then dissociates into tissue cells.
● Acidity (pH): When tissues are active, they produce acids (like lactic acid). This lowers
the pH, which makes hemoglobin less likely to hold onto oxygen, so more oxygen is
released into the tissues.
Explanation: In other words, increasing acidity enhances the unloading of oxygen from
hemoglobin. The main acids produced by metabolically active tissues are lactic acid and
carbonic acid which causes decrease in pH in tissue cells. As a result, the oxyhemoglobin
present in tissue capillaries dissociate into O2 and Hb.
● Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): When CO₂ levels are high (like in tissues), it causes hemoglobin to
release more oxygen. High CO₂ levels also lower the pH, which helps oxygen get
unloaded from hemoglobin.
Explanation: CO2 also can bind to hemoglobin and as PCO2 rises, hemoglobin releases
O2 more readily. PCO2 is higher in tissue cells and lower in alveoli. PCO2 and pH are
related factors because low blood pH (acidity) results from high PCO2. As CO2 enters
the blood, it is temporarily converted to carbonic acid (H2CO3) by an enzyme called
carbonic anhydrase (CA). The carbonic acid thus formed in red blood cells dissociates
into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions. As the H+ concentration increases, pH
decreases. Thus, an increased PCO2 produces more acidic environment, which helps
release O2 from hemoglobin. During exercise, lactic acid (a byproduct of anaerobic
metabolism within muscles) also decreases blood pH.
● Temperature: When your body temperature increases (like during exercise), more
oxygen is released from hemoglobin to meet the body’s higher needs.
Explanation: Within limits, increase in temperature increases the amount of O2
released from hemoglobin. Heat is a byproduct of the metabolic reactions of all cells,
and the heat released by contracting muscle fibers tends to raise body temperature.
Metabolically active cells require more O2 and liberate more acids and heat. The acids
and heat in turn promote release of O2 from oxyhemoglobin. Fever produces a similar
result.
● BPG (2,3-bisphosphoglycerate): This substance in red blood cells makes hemoglobin
less likely to hold onto oxygen, so it helps release oxygen into the tissues when needed.
2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) in red blood cells helps hemoglobin release oxygen to tissues. By
binding to hemoglobin, BPG reduces hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen, making it easier to
release oxygen where it's needed most, such as in active tissues or at high altitudes. This helps
ensure efficient oxygen delivery throughout the body.

Carbon Dioxide Transport

After the cells use oxygen, they produce carbon dioxide (CO₂) as a waste product. CO₂ is
carried back to the lungs in three main ways:
- Dissolved in Blood Plasma (7%): A small amount of CO₂ is dissolved directly in the blood
plasma and is exhaled through the lungs.
Explanation: A small amount of CO₂ simply dissolves in the liquid part of the blood, or
plasma, and is carried to the lungs. Once in the lungs, this CO₂ moves into the air spaces and
is exhaled.
- Carbamino Compounds (23%): Most of the CO₂ binds to hemoglobin in a form called
carbaminohemoglobin. When blood reaches the lungs, CO₂ is released from hemoglobin
and exhaled.
Explanation: Some CO₂ attaches to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming a compound called
carbaminohemoglobin. This bond helps transport CO₂ back to the lungs. Once the blood
reaches the lungs, CO₂ separates from hemoglobin and is exhaled
Bicarbonate Ions (70%): The majority of CO₂ in the blood is converted into bicarbonate ions
(HCO₃⁻). This happens inside red blood cells. When blood reaches the lungs, the bicarbonate
ions are turned back into CO₂ and exhaled.
Explanation: Most CO₂ is converted into bicarbonate ions in red blood cells. Inside the cells, CO₂
combines with water to form carbonic acid, which quickly splits into bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions. Bicarbonate travels in the blood to the lungs, where the process reverses—
bicarbonate turns back into CO₂, which is then exhaled.
These three methods work together to carry CO₂ efficiently from the body’s tissues to the lungs,
ensuring it’s removed with every breath.

³BREATHING AND BREATHING CONTROLS

What is Ventilation (breathing)?

- Ventilation is the process of moving air in
and out of the lungs.
Two Aspects of Ventilation
- Muscle Actions: Muscles involved in respiration
- Air Pressure Gradients: Difference in air pressure driving airflow
Muscles of Respiration:
- These muscles increase the thoracic cavity volume:
● Diaphragm
● External intercostals
● Pectoralis minor
● Scalene muscles
Muscles of Expiration:
- These muscles decrease the thoracic volume by depressing ribs and sternum:
● Internal intercostals
● Transverse thoracis
● Abdominal muscles
Respiratory Areas in the Brainstem
-Neurons for respiration are located in the brainstem.
-Inspiration and expiration neurons intermingle in these regions.
Rhythmic Breathing
- Rhythmic breathing involves cyclic breathing in which long breaths are followed by medium
and short breaths
Facts about rhythmic breathing:
● Normal adult breathing rate: 12-20 breaths/minute.
● Children’s rate: 20-40 breaths/minute.
 ● Breathing rate is influenced by respiratory muscle stimulation.
● The medulla oblongata controls the basic breathing rhythm.
● Stronger muscle contractions result in deeper breathing.
Generation of Rhythmic Breathing
- Medullary Respiratory Center Creates the basic pattern of rhythmic breathing.
Pattern of breathing:
1. Starting Inspiration: Stimulates respiratory muscles.
2. Increasing Inspiration: Continues for about 2 seconds.
3. Stopping Inspiration: Triggers expiration.
Nervous Control of Breathing
-Higher brain centers can modify the respiratory center’s activity. That is why we can stop our
breathing voluntarily.
-Conscious Control is when breathing can be voluntarily controlled.
Hering-Breuer Reflex
- This reflex limits the inspiration extent.
- Mechanism: Lung stretch receptors trigger expiration when lungs are full.
External Stimuli:
- Touch, cold, or pain receptors in the skin can stimulate the respiratory center, explaining
reflexive gasps.
Chemical Control of Breathing
- The respiratory system primarily adds O₂ to and removes CO₂ from blood.
- CO₂, not O₂, is the main breathing regulator.
- Increased CO₂ (hypercapnia) lowers blood pH, signaling the need to breathe.
The Role of CO₂ and pH in Breathing Regulation
-CO₂ combines with water, creating H⁺ and reducing pH.
-Chemoreceptors in Medulla detect changes in H⁺ concentration.
-Increased H⁺ signals higher breathing rate to expel CO₂ and normalize pH.
The Role of O₂ in Breathing Regulation
- The O₂-sensitive Chemoreceptors are located in carotid and aortic bodies.
- Low O₂ (hypoxia) triggers increased breathing.
- High altitude, emphysema, shock, and asphyxiation are what trigger hypoxia.
The Feedback Mechanism of Breathing Rate and pH
- Rapid Breathing: Lowers CO₂, raising pH, slowing breathing.
- Increased CO₂: Lowers pH, triggering faster breathing.
- This feedback system maintains blood pH and homeostasis

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISEASES AND DISORDERS (bonus)

Bronchitis (brong-kı ¯′tis)

● Inflammation of the bronchi caused by irritants, such as cigarette smoke or infections;
swelling impairs breathing; bronchitis can progress to emphysema.
Emphysema (em-fi-se ¯′ma ˘)
● Destruction of alveolar walls; increased coughing increases pressure on the alveoli,
causing rupture and destruction; loss of alveoli decreases surface area for gas exchange
and decreases the lungs’ ability to expel air; progression can be slowed, but there is no
cure; alone or in combination with bronchitis, the condition is known as chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Cystic fibrosis (fi-bro ¯′sis)
● Genetic disorder that affects mucus secretions throughout the body due to an abnormal
transport protein; mucus is much more viscous and accumulates in ducts and tubes,
such as the bronchioles; airflow is restricted, and infections are more likely.
Pulmonary fibrosis
● Replacement of lung tissue with fibrous connective tissue, making the lungs less elastic;
exposure to asbestos or coal dust are common causes.
Lung cancer
● Occurs in the epithelium of the respiratory tract; can easily spread to other parts of the
body because of the rich blood and lymphatic supply to the lungs.
Diphtheria (dif-the ¯r′e ¯-a ˘)
● Caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae; a grayish membrane forms in
the throat and can completely block respiratory passages; Dpt immunization for children
partially targets diphtheria
Whooping cough (pertussis; per-tu ˘s′is)
● Caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis, which destroys cilia lining the respiratory
epithelium, allowing mucus to accumulate; leads to a very severe cough; Dpt
immunization for children partially targets pertussis.
Tuberculosis (tu ¯-ber′kyu ¯-lo ¯′sis)
● Caused by the bacterium Clostridium tuberculosis, which forms small, lumplike lesions
called tubercles; immune system targets tubercles and causes larger lesions; certain
strains of tuberculosis are resistant to antibiotics
Pneumonia (noo-mo ¯′ne ¯-a ˘)
● Many bacterial or viral infections of the lungs that cause fever, difficulty in breathing,
and chest pain; edema in the lungs reduces their inflation ability and reduces gas
exchange
Flu (influenza; in-flu ¯-en′za ˘)
● Viral infection of the respiratory system; does not affect the digestive system, as is
commonly misunderstood; causes chills, fever, headache, and muscle aches
Common cold
● Results from a viral infection Lower Respiratory Tract.
Fungal diseases
● Fungal spores enter the respiratory tract attached to dust particles, usually resulting in
minor respiratory infections that in some cases can spread to other parts of the body.
Anemia (circulatory system)
● Reduced hemoglobin lowers oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.