NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
TOPIC: COMPOSTING
(LECTURE 3)
Presenter :DR J. TSHUMA
Composting
• Definition:- “Composting is the biological
decomposition of the organic constituents of
wastes under controlled conditions to a state
sufficiently stable for nuisance-free storage
and utilization.”
End Uses of Compost
• Soil Improvement
- soil structure, condition and fertility
• Growing media
- component of mixes used to grow crops in containers
• Mulches
- suppress weed growth, conserves water and also to
maintain soil temperatures. Mulching also protects
plants from frost.
• Restoration
- used for soil “forming” and soil improvement
• Landfill Applications
- improvement of landfill covers – soil formation
Classification
• Compost systems can be classified on three
general bases:
• Oxygen usage (aerobic & anaerobic)
• Temperature (Mesophilic 15-40OC &
Thermophilic 45-65 OC)
• Technological approach (static pile or
windrow, and mechanical or "enclosed"
composting)
Biological Process of Composting
• Abundance and variety of microbes indigenous to
wastes are sufficient to compost the wastes
• Microbes active in the compost process are:
– Bacteria (mesophyllic and thermophyllic)
– Actinomycetes
– Fungi
– Protoza
– Rotifers
Biological Processing Options
1) Turned Windrow
2) Static Aerated Pile
3) In-Vessel
-Horizontal Units
-Vertical Units
-Rotating Drums
Turned Windrow Systems
Turned Windrow Systems
Windrows Composting Technology
• Composting waste is piles into heaps or windrows. The
piles are elongated and dome shaped to shed rain and
snow
• Before the Windrows are formed organic material is
processed by shredding and screening it to a size of
approx. 0.3 – 0.9 m. The moisture is adjusted 50 – 60 %
and the temperature is approx. 50 – 57 C.
Disadvantage:
• It requires extensive land space (1 acre requires ~ 2 300
– 2 700 m3)
Turned Windrow Systems
• Most preferred method used in Ireland
• Composting waste is piles into heaps or windrows.
The piles are elongated and dome shaped to shed rain
and snow
• Commonly used for rapid composting of yard wastes
• Windrows are aerated regularly by turning
• Constructed to be 1,8-2,5m high, 4,6-5,2m wide
• The center of the pile insulated so that composting
can continue when outdoor temperatures are below
freezing
• Finished compost can be made between 3 months - 2
yrs
• Rate of composting is generally directly proportional
to frequency of turning
Static Aerated Pile
Static Aerated Pile
• Does not employ turning – ‘static’
• Air is drawn or blown through a network of
perforated plastic pipes under the windrows
• Faster than windrow systems
• Used where aeration and temperature control
are crucial, (i.e. sludge or food processing wastes)
• Works best with a material that is relatively
uniform in particle size ( not > 1.5 to 2 in. in any
dimension
In-Vessel Systems
• Also referred to as
-Contained systems
-Reactor
-Bioreactor
• Computer provides greater control of
composting process
• Raw waste is placed in a large container, with
built-in aeration and mechanical mixing
equipment
Types of In-Vessel Systems
• Horizontal Units
• Vertical Units
• Rotating Drums
Vertical Units
• Small land area
• Enclosed and aerated in a vertical
reactor known as “silos” or “towers”.
• Compaction of material at the base reactor -
impedes aeration - anaerobic regions
developing
• Good for Sludge composting industry but not
MSW
Rotating Drum
Rotating Drums
• Most common in-vessel composting approach
• Combined with aeration in static piles or
turned windrow
• Feedstock introduced into one end of slowly
rotating drum, inclined at about 5 degrees
from horizontal
• RT varies from 4-6 hours to 2-3 days
• Drum allows homogenisation and screening of
materials
Problems associated with Composting
of Municipal Waste
1. Leachate
– Odours
– Vector for organisms
– supports the proliferation of insects
2. Odour & VOC’s
– Feedstock
– Enhanced under anaerobic conditions
3. Dust
– Agitation of composting materials
– Bioaerosols
Problems associated with Composting of
Municipal Waste
4. Vermin, Birds & Insects
-Nuisance Problems
-Pathogens in Final Product
5. Bioaerosols and other Health Risks
Hazard – pathogenic organisms in feedstock.
Pathway – ingestion of materials (for example from unwashed
hands). Receptor – compost site workers.
6. Fire
-Stored in bulk
Environmental Factors Affecting
Composting
1. Temperature
• Thermophilic (45 –650C) and Mesophillic (15-400C).
• Above this temperature spores produced (Resting Stage).
• Microorganisms inactivated or die off.
• Affected by its climatic surroundings and method of aeration.
• In a windrow highest temperature reached in centre, lower at
edges.
Environmental Factors Affecting
Composting
2. pH
• Anaerobic digestion the pH level covers a narrow range (pH 6.5 to 7.5)
• Aerobic- pH so broad difficulties rarely encountered with too high or too
low pH in composting.
• During the early stages the pH usually drops (down to about pH 5.0)
because of organic acid formation.
• An exception which can reduce the pH is fruit wastes which can reduce
the pH to 4.5.
• calcium hydroxide (lime) can be used as a buffer but it also lead to a loss in
ammonium nitrogen.
Environmental Factors Affecting
Composting
3. Aeration(Anaerobic & Aerobic)
Anaerobic:
• Advantages
a) minimisation of the loss of nitrogen
b) less costly
• Disadvantages include:
a) Slowness of decomposition
b) Absence of high temperatures
c) The presence of un-decomposed intermediates
d) The un-pre-processed appearance of the product
Environmental Factors Affecting
Composting
• Aerobic
Aerobic composting benefits from:
a) A rapid rate of degradation
b) Elevated temperature levels
c) Absence of putrefactive
Oxygen uptake reflects intensity of microbial activity.
Theoretically the amount of oxygen required is
determined by the amount of carbon to be oxidised
(Chrometzka, 1968).
Environmental Factors Affecting
Composting
4. Moisture Content
• Moisture content and oxygen availability are closely related
• If the moisture content of the mass is so high as to displace
the air from the interstices (voids between particles)
anaerobic conditions will develop within the mass .
• The maximum permissible moisture content is a function of
the structural strength of the particles of the material to be
composted i.e. the degree of resistance of individual particles
to compression.
• Woodchips, straw and hay can be as high as 75 to 80%
whereas paper (upon becoming wet, collapses and forms
mats) has a permissible moisture content of 55 to 60%.
Factors affecting Composting
5. Substrate
The waste (referred to as the substrate) should contain all
necessary nutrients.
Macronutrients Micronutrients
• Carbon (C) Cobalt (Co)
• Nitrogen (N) Manganese
(Mn)
• Phosphorous (P) Manganese (Mg)
• Potassium (K) Copper (Cu)
Factors affecting Composting
Carbon: Nitrogen Ratio (C: N)
• The C: N ratio of the waste to be composted is the most
important factor that requires attention.
• A large percentage of the carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide
by the microbes in their metabolic activities .
• The major consumption of nitrogen is in the synthesis of
protoplasm consequently much more carbon is required.
• The C: N of the substrate should fall within the range of 20-
25:1.
• Mmicroorganisms such as bacteria and fungi grow best with
the proper level of Carbon and Nitrogen.
Economic Factors
• The costs of a composting facility include land, labour and
equipment.
• It will divert waste that would otherwise need costly disposal.
If the compost site is closer than the other disposal site, there
will be savings in transport costs.
• The finished compost can be used as a substitute for
purchased mulch or topsoil in municipal landscaping.
• If sold commercially, compost can generate revenues, which
help defray processing costs.
Conclusion
• From an environmental perspective,
composting not only reduces the problems
associated with landfills and incinerators, but
the finished compost adds beneficial humus
and nutrients to soil. Composting is a waste
management solution, which can benefit
municipalities and benefit the environment at
the same time.
