Composting:
Composting:
The controlled biological
decomposition of organic
materials
Compost: definition
“An accumulation of decaying or decayed
organic matter, as from leaves and
manure, used to improve soil structure and
to provide nutrients.”
Decay is a biological process
Properties determine what is a compost
(not the production method)
Composting
natural biological process, but for rapid
composting and consistent quality,
environmental conditions must be
controlled
end product (compost) bears little
resemblance to original wastes from which
the compost was made
typically dark brown to black in colour,
with crumbly texture and earthy odour
Why compost?
To eliminate disease organisms
Animal ● Plant ● Human
To produce a stable and safe
soil amendment
Nutrients ● Odors ●
Finished compost
humus-like, resembling rich topsoil
resistant to further microbial decomposition
Composting
typical volume reductions in excess of
50% of the original volume of the waste;
effective & useful waste diversion strategy
good compost is devoid of organisms that
may be harmful to human health
Uses of compost
high organic matter content => valuable soil
amendment
may be used as low-grade fertilizer to supplement
plant nutritional needs
may be used to condition heavy clay or mineral soils
promotes proper balance between air and water in
soils
aids water absorption in soils
What can be composted?
any waste material with a high organic matter
content is a potential candidate
used for centuries to stabilize human and animal
wastes
used more recently for:
sewage sludges
industrial wastes (e.g. food, pulp & paper)
yard and garden wastes
municipal solid wastes (up to 70% organic matter by weight)
Controlling composting
To achieve maximum composting for any
organic material, certain environmental
conditions must be maintained in the
compost pile
=> may be classified into interdependent
biological conditions
physical conditions
chemical conditions
THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Key organisms:
bacteria
fungi
Actinomycetes
- play active role in decomposing organic
matter
Compost
microorganisms
THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Secondary organisms:
earthworms
insects
other soil invertebrates
play a less significant role in
decomposition process compared
to microorganisms
more important in mechanical
breakdown of wastes (chewing,
burrowing, movement, aeration)
Fate of organic matter in compost
Carbon-containing compounds are consumed by
microorganisms and converted to:
microbial tissues
carbon dioxide
water
Heat is released as a result of microbial
metabolic activity
=> temperature in pile increases
COMPOST
Stable end product composed of:
living and dead microbial cells and
cell fragments
byproducts of microbial
decomposition
undecomposed particles (organic and
inorganic)
Microbial succession
in compost piles
A wide variety of microorganisms are
naturally present in most nontoxic
agricultural wastes, yard wastes, or mixed
municipal wastes
==> number and type of available organisms
generally not a limiting factor
Depending upon environmental conditions,
certain microbial groups may predominate at
certain stages in the decomposition process
THE CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
determined largely by the composition of the
waste materials to be composted
Important factors influencing the chemical
environment for composting:
adequate food / energy sources for microorganisms
balanced amount of nutrients
adequate water content
adequate oxygen
acceptable pH range
Food / energy sources for
compost microbes
microbes rely on organic carbon
compounds to meet energy needs
Carbon in natural or synthetic organic
substances varies in degradability (e.g.
sugars easily metabolized by most
microbes; lignins in wood or paper
degraded more slowly, by fewer groups;
plastic very resistant to breakdown)
Carbon
Source of energy for microbes
Not all forms are equally
available
lignin (less available)
C
cellulose
fats, waxes, proteins
sugars (more available)
C
Food / energy sources for
compost microbes
As the more easily degradable organic
compounds are decomposed, a small
portion of the carbon goes into microbial
cells, while a large portion is converted to
CO2 and lost to the atmosphere
=> reduction in weight and volume of
waste
Food / energy sources for
compost microbes
More resistant carbon compounds form
the basis for the physical structure of
finished compost.
Most municipal, yard, and agricultural
wastes have adequate biodegradable
carbon to support microbial activity
Nitrogen
Vital nutrient for microbes
Needed for protein synthesis
Excess may volatilize as ammonia (NH3)
Also important for plants
N
C:N ratio
initially about 35:1
about 10:1 to 20:1 in cured product
N
Oxygen
Permits efficient liberation
of energy from carbon
O2
Energy is used by microbes
to grow and reproduce
Nutrients for compost microbes
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are
most important nutrients
nitrogen is usually the limiting nutrient
=>
CARBON to NITROGEN (C:N) RATIO IS
CRITICAL IN DETERMINING THE RATE
OF DECOMPOSITION.
Water
Clings to compost particles
The bath within which
microbes grow
Too much fills pores
H2O
Oxygen moves slowly into
water
Compost particle
environment
Air
Anaerobic Water
Zone
Unavailable Aerobic
Zone Zone
Management parameters
Particle H2O
Size O2
Porosity
C:N ratio
- C:N ratio must be established on the basis
of decomposable rather than total carbon
generally, a ratio lower than 30:1 is
considered ideal; higher ratios result in
slower decomposition rates => adjusted by
co-composting with different materials
Typical C:N ratios for waste products:
Manure - 15:1 to 20:1
Yard wastes - 20:1 to 80:1
Municipal wastes - 40:1 to 100:1
Wood chips - 400:1 to 700:1
As the composting process proceeds and
carbon dioxide is lost to the atmosphere,
the
C:N ratio narrows => finished compost has
a C:N ratio of 10:1 to 15:1
Moisture in compost piles
ideal moisture: 50% to 60% by weight
most wastes do not contain enough moisture =>
composting process slowed down unless water
is added
excess water causes problems in compost piles:
anaerobic conditions, rotting, and unpleasant
odours
loss of moisture occurs through evaporation =>
controlled by adjusting the size and shape of the
compost pile
Oxygen in compost piles
aerobic decomposition is required for
odour-free, rapid composting
5% to 15% oxygen concentration is
considered adequate
piles aerated by mechanical turning, air
injection
Aerobic processes
Microbes,
Carbon, &
Carbon
Oxygen
Dioxide,
Water,
Compost,
&Heat
pH in compost piles
pH of 6 - 8 considered ideal
Level of acidity / alkalinity affects:
nutrient availability
overall metabolic activity of microbes
pH in compost piles
pH may be adjusted upwards by the
addition of lime (calcium carbonate), but
most organic substances are naturally
well-buffered with regard to pH change
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Includes factors such as:
particle size
temperature
mixing
pile size and shape
small particle size promotes rapid
decomposition due to increased surface
area-to-volume ratio
However: if all particles are small, they
pack together and create dense,
anaerobic compost
=> particles should have enough surface
area to promote microbial activity, but
have enough air spaces to permit gas
exchange with the atmosphere
Co-composting
used to achieve better balance of particle
sizes (e.g. small-particle sewage sludge
mixed with large-particle wood chips)
Particle size reduction by grinding is
occasionally done before composting;
sometimes undertaken after composting to
improve aesthetic appeal of finished
product
Temperatures in the compost
pile
Different microbes have different optimal
temperature ranges:
psychrophiles (cool - below 20°C)
mesophiles (warm - 20 to 40°C)
thermophiles (hot - 40 to 80° C)
sub-optimal temperatures interfere with
metabolic activity and reproduction of
microbes
Thermophilic
composting
Microbes tend to specialize in the
temperatures they prefer.
Between 43°C and 68°C,
thermophiles dominate.
Heat greatly accelerates microbial
efficiency.
Thermophilic
composting
as temperatures increase above the
maximum, cell proteins are destroyed and
the microbes die
most effective temperature range for
efficient composting is 55 to 75° C
(thermophile range)
COMPOSTING TECHNIQUES
Small-scale home composting:
simple compost heaps
box or barrel composters
commercial composter units
digester units
Commercial composting:
windrows
aerated static piles
in-vessel composting systems
PROCESSING OF MUNICIPAL
COMPOST
1. Removal of bulky items
2. Particle size reduction (grinders, shear
shredders, hammer mills)
3. Screening (size requirements)
4. Magnetic separation
5. Moisture addition and mixing
6. Composting (numerous techniques)
7. Post processing: screening, curing, storage,
marketing, application
