GENERAL PHYSICS

Units and basic

quantities
Before a measurement can be made, a standard or unit must be chosen. The size of the quantity to
be measured is then found with an instrument having a
scale marked in the unit.
Three basic quantities we measure in physics are length, mass and time. Units for other quantities
are based on them. The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of metric units now used
in many countries. It is a decimal system in which units are divided or multiplied by 10 to give
smaller or larger units.

Length
The unit of length is the metre (m).

Significant figures
Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value and is subject to errors arising
from limitations of the apparatus and the experimenter.
The number of figures, called significant figures, given for a measurement indicates how accurate
we think it is and more figures should not be given than is justified.
For example, a value of 4.5 for a measurement has two significant figures; 0.0385 has three
significant figures, 3 being the most significant and 5 the least, i.e. it is the one we are least sure
about since it might be 4 or it might be 6

Area
The area of the square in Figure 1.3a with sides 1cm long is 1 square centimetre (1cm2). The area
of a square or rectangle is given by
area = length  breadth
The SI unit of area is the square metre (m2).
Volume is the amount of space occupied. The unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3) but as this is
rather large, for most purposes the cubic centimetre (cm3) is used.
The volume of a liquid may be obtained by pouring it into a measuring cylinder. When making a
reading both vessels must be upright and your eye must be level with the bottom of the curved
liquid surface, i.e. the meniscus.
The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it. The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
The term weight is often used when mass is really meant.

Time -The unit of time is the second (s)

To measure an interval of time in an experiment, first choose a timer that is accurate enough for
the task. A stopwatch is adequate for finding the period in seconds of a pendulum
Period of a simple pendulum
Attach a small metal ball (called a bob) to a piece of string, andvsuspend it as shown in Figure 1.8. Pull
the bob a small distance to one side, and then release it so that it oscillates to and fro
through a small angle.
Find the time for the bob to make several complete oscillations; one oscillation is from A to O to B to O
to A (Figure 1.8). Repeat the timing a few times for the same number of oscillations
and work out the average. The time for one oscillation is the period T. What is it for your system? The
frequency f of the oscillations is the number of complete oscillations per second and
equals 1/T. Calculate f.
How does the amplitude of the oscillations change with time?
Investigate the effect on T of (i) a longer string, (ii) a heavier bob

●Vernier scales and micrometers

Lengths can be measured with a ruler to an accuracy of about 1mm. Some investigations may need a
more accurate measurement of length, which can be achieved by using vernier calipers (Figure 1.10) or
a micrometer screw gauge.

Vernier scale
The calipers shown in Figure 1.10 use a vernier scale. The simplest type enables a length to be
measured to 0.01cm. It is a small sliding scale which is 9mm long but divided into 10 equal division

One end of the length to be measured is made to coincide with the zero of the millimetre scale and
the other end with the zero of the vernier scale.
Micrometer screw gauge
This measures very small objects to 0.001cm. One revolution of the drum opens the accurately flat,
parallel jaws by one division on the scale on the shaft of the gauge; this is usually 12 mm, i.e. 0.05 cm.
If the drum has a scale of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the drum by one division opens the jaws
by 0.05/50 = 0.001 cm (Figure 1.12). A friction clutch ensures that the jaws exert the same force
when the object is gripped.

Speed, velocity and acceleration

average speed = distance moved /time taken

Velocity
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time; velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in
a stated direction. If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they have the same speed of 20 m/s
and the same velocity of 20 m/s due north. If one travels north and the other south, their speeds
are the same but not their velocities since their directions of motion are different. Speed is a
scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity.

velocity = distance moved in a stated direction /time taken

The velocity of a body is uniform or constant if it moves with a steady speed in a straight line. It is not
uniform if it moves in a curved path. Why? The units of speed and velocity are the same,
km/h, m/s.

Distance moved in a stated direction is called the displacement .

velocity = displacement /time taken

When the velocity of a body changes we say the body accelerates

Acceleration is the change of velocity in unit time, or

acceleration = change of velocity /time taken for change

Acceleration is also a vector and both its magnitude and direction should be stated. However, at present
we will consider only motion in a straight line and so the magnitude of the velocity will equal the speed,
and the magnitude of the acceleration will equal the change of speed in unit time

Timers
A number of different devices are useful for analysing motion in the laboratory.

Motion sensors use the ultrasonic echo technique to determine the distance of an object
from the sensor.

Tickertape timer: tape charts .A tickertape timer also enables us to measure speeds and hence
accelerations
Graphs of equations

Velocity–time graphs
If the velocity of a body is plotted against the time, the graph obtained is a velocity–time graph. It
provides a way of solving motion problems. Tape charts are crude velocity–time graphs that show the
velocity changing in jumps rather than smoothly, as occurs in practice. A motion sensor gives a smoother
plot.
The area under a velocity–time graph measures the distance travelled

The slope or gradient of a velocity–time graph represents the acceleration of the body

Distance–time graphs
A body travelling with uniform velocity covers equal distances in equal times. Its distance–time
graph is a straight line, like OL in Figure 3.3 for a velocity of 10 m/s. The slope of the graph is
LM/OM = 40 m/4 s = 10 m/s, which is the value of the velocity. The following statement is true in
general:
The slope or gradient of a distance–time graph represents the velocity of the body
Equations for uniform acceleration
Problems involving bodies moving with uniform acceleration can often be solved quickly using the
equations of motion.
First equation
If a body is moving with uniform acceleration a and its velocity increases from u to v in time t, then
a =(v – u)/t
change of velocity /time taken
∴ at = v - u
or

V =u + at

Second equation
The velocity of a body moving with uniform acceleration increases steadily. Its average velocity
therefore equals half the sum of its initial and final velocities, that is,

Third equation

Fourth equation
Falling bodies

In air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper.

In a vacuum they fall at the same rate, as may be shown with the apparatus of Figure 4.1. The
difference in air is due to air resistance having a greater effect on light bodies than on heavy
bodies. The air resistance to a light body is large when compared with the body’s weight. With a
dense piece of metal the resistance is negligible at low speeds.

Acceleration of free fall

All bodies falling freely under the force of gravity do so with uniform acceleration if air resistance is
negligible (i.e. the ‘steps’ in the tape chart from the practical work should all be equal).
This acceleration, called the acceleration of free fall, is denoted by the italic letter g. Its value varies
slightly over the Earth but is constant in each place; in India or example, it is about 9.8m/s2 or near
enough 10m/s2.
The velocity of a free-falling body therefore increases by 10m/s every second

In calculations using the equations of motion, g replaces a. It is given a positive sign for falling bodies
(i.e. a = g = +10m/s2) and a negative sign for rising bodies since they are decelerating (i.e. a = -g = –
10m/s2).
Projectiles
. One ball was dropped from rest and the other, a ‘projectile’, was thrown sideways at the same time.
Their vertical accelerations (due to gravity) are equal, showing that a projectile falls like a body which is
dropped from rest. Its horizontal velocity does not affect its vertical motion

The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are independent and can be treated separately.

Density

In everyday language, lead is said to be ‘heavier’ than wood. By this it is meant that a certain volume
of lead is heavier than the same volume of wood. In science such comparisons are made by using the
term density. This is the mass per unit volume of a substance and is calculated from

density = mass /volume

The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre. To convert a density from g/cm3,
normally the most suitable unit for the size of sample we use, to kg/m3, we multiply by 1000
●●Simple density measurements
If the mass m and volume V of a substance are known, its density can be found from ρ = m/V.
a) Regularly shaped solid
The mass is found on a balance and the volume by measuring its dimensions with a ruler.

Irregularly shaped solid, such as a pebble or glass stopper

The mass of the solid is found on a balance. Its volume is measured by one of the methods shown in
Figures 5.2a and b. In Figure 5.2a the volume is the difference between the first and second readings. In
Figure 5.2b it is the volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder.

Floating and sinking

An object sinks in a liquid of lower density than its own; otherwise it floats, partly or wholly submerged.
For example, a piece of glass of density 2.5g/cm3 sinks in water (density 1.0g/cm3) but floats in
mercury (density 13.6g/cm3). An iron nail sinks in water but an iron ship floats because its average
density is less than that of water.