Dr Sara Karam

By
Dr Sara Karam
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Dr Sara Karam

Unit one
Motion, forces and energy

Chapter one

Measurements and units

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1.1 Introduction:
• Physics is a branch of science that deals with matter and energy and the way the act on each
other. e.g., the study of motion, sound, light, heat and electricity.
• During this study we need to measure several physical quantities e.g., Length, mass and time.
• When dealing with physical quantities we cannot depend on human consideration and
guessing to determine their values. A scientific method must be used.
• Scientists developed fixed values for these quantities and assigned units for these quantities.
• There are many different quantities for each unit used over different parts of the world,
however most scientists agreed to use the SI units (le systeme international d’unites) in their
researches and investigations.
Three of the important physical quantities that we will deal with are: length, time and mass.
• The following table summarises the prefixes used to specify the fractions and multiples of
units:

Prefix Quantity
Micro (µ) 10 -6

Milli (m) 10 -3

Centi (c) 10 -2

Deci (d) 10 -1

Kilo (K) 10 3

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Mega (M) 10 6

1.2 Measuring length and time:

A) Length:
• It is used to measure distances. The SI unit of measuring length is the metre
(symbol m).
• Short lengths can be measured by rules (rulers) or meter rules, while longer
ones can be measured by tape meter.
• Longer distances (e.g. distances between countries) can be measured in
kilometre (Km), while shorter distances can be measured in centimetre,
millimetre and micrometre.
• Kilometre x 1000 metre x 100 centimetre x 10 millimetre x
1000 micrometre.

1. Make the ruler as close as possible to the object to be measured,

otherwise a pointer can be used.
2. When taking the reading, your eye should be perpendicular to the scale
to avoid parallax error.
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3. Take each reading several times and take the average (if a reading
appears to be very far from the others, it should be excluded).
4. If you want to measure the length, thickness or diameter of a very small
or thin object, you can measure the total length of a large number of
the same object then divide it by the number of objects to get the
desired length. This minimizes the human error.
5. If you want to measure the circumference of circular object (such as a
cup) wind a string 10 times around it then unwind it, measure the length
by a ruler and divide it by 10.
6. The diameter of a sphere or a cylinder can be measured by putting it
between two blocks, then measuring the distance between the blocks.

• This is an error that occurs when the pointer is not exactly adjusted on the
zero point of the scale.
• This error could be positive (the pointer is above the zero) or negative (the
pointer is below the zero).
• In case of the positive zero error the increase in the reading should be
subtracted from the final reading, while in the case of a negative zero error
the decrease should be added to the final reading.

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Figure 1.1 the zero error

• The SI unit for measuring time is seconds (S).

• Time is measured using either digital (showing a number on a screen) or analogue
(with a hand or a needle moving around a circular scale) devices (e.g., clocks and
stopwatches).
• Longer time intervals can be measured in minutes, hours, days and maybe years!
• Year x365 day x 24 hour x 60 minute x 60 second.
• Shorter time intervals can be measured in milliseconds, microseconds or
nanoseconds.
• If we want to measure a small-time interval or a small distance an average value
can be obtained by measuring multiples and then dividing by the number of
multiples used. (E.g., finding the period of a pendulum) or by using an electronic
timer which starts and stops automatically.

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The simple pendulum:

Figure 1.2 the simple pendulum

• The above diagram shows the simple pendulum.

• The simple pendulum is made up of a small mass (bob) suspended with a string.
• The time taken for the pendulum to complete one swing is called the period.
• The time taken for one swing is too small, that’s why if we are going to time one
swing the percentage of inaccuracy will be very high. To avoid this, we measure
the time for 25 swings, then dividing the result by 25.
Time for 25 swings = 55 seconds.
So, the time for 1 swing = 55/25 = 2.2 seconds

1.3 Mass and weight:

• Although mass and weight are most of the time used to express the same
quantity, there are a lot of differences between them.
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• Differences between mass and weight:

Mass (m) Weight (W)

1) It is the amount of matter 1) It is another name of
in a body. earth’s gravitational force
on an object and it is
equivalent to the
acceleration of free fall.
2) It is not a force. 2) It is a force.
3) It is measured using a 3) It is measured using a
balance. spring balance.
4) The SI unit is Kilogram 4)The SI unit is newton
(Kg). (N)
5) The mass of an object is 5) The weight of an object
always constant (not changes with the
affected by time, place or changing gravity in
temperature). different places.
6) The mass can never reach 6) The weight reaches
zero. zero when there is no
gravity.

• There are different types of balances used to measure masses e.g., beam
balance and top pan balance.

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• When we measure the mass using a balance, we must ensure that the
balance is clean, placed horizontally and that there is no zero error.
• The earth has a gravitational force acting on any object on its surface. This
force is approximately 10 newtons on each kilogram of mass and is
represented by the symbol (g).
Weight = mass x g
In symbols
W = mg

So, if a person’s mass on earth’s surface is 50 kilograms, then his weight is

500 newtons.
If two bodies have the same weight (in the same
place), they must also have the same mass.

Figure 1.3 difference between mass and weigh

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1.4 Density:
• Density is a relationship between the mass of an object and its volume.
• The density of an object is a measure of the number of grams packed in each
cubic centimetre of the substance.
• The density of a substance is calculated by dividing its mass over its volume.
• Density can be calculated using the equation below:
Density= mass/volume

Or
Ρ= m/v

• The unit of density is g/cm3

• The density of water is around 1 g/cm3. An object will float on the surface of water (or any
other liquid) if its density is less than the density of water and it will sink if its density is more.
This applies to different liquids too (the heaviest liquid will be at the bottom, while the
lightest will come on the top).

Figure 1.4 Density tower

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Solved example:
Find the density of a piece of glass with a mass of 75 g and volume of 30 cm3.

Solution:

Density = mass/volume.

Density = 75 / 30 = 2.5 g/cm3

Example:

Aluminium has a density of 2700 kg/m3

a) What is the density in g/cm3?

b) What is the mass of 20 cm3?

c) What is the volume of 27 g of aluminium?

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How to determine the density of a regularly shaped solid?

• To calculate the density of a regularly shaped solid you need to measure two values first,
which are its mass and its volume.
• The mass can be measure using a balance.
• If an object has a simple shape, its volume can be calculated easily.
For example:

Volume of a rectangular block = length x width x height.

N.B. the length, width and height are
measured using a ruler or a tape metre.

Solved example:

The block in the diagram above has the shown dimensions and a mass of 30 Kg calculate its density.

Solution:

The volume of the block = length x width x height

= 4 X 1 x 3 = 12 m3

Density = mass / volume

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= 30 / 12 = 2.5 kg/m3

N.B. if the unit of mass is in Kg and the volume is in m3, then the unit of density will be in Kg/m3.

How to measure the density of a liquid?

• Again, to calculate the density of any liquid you need to measure first its mass
and volume.
• This can be carried out using a balance (to measure the mass) and a measuring
cylinder (to measure the volume).
• To calculate the density of a liquid you need to carry out the following steps:
1. Put the empty measuring cylinder on the balance and record its mass (A).
2. Remove the measuring cylinder from the balance and then transfer the
liquid into it and record its volume (v).
3. Put the measuring cylinder with the liquid inside it on the balance again and
record the new mass (B).
4. To find out the mass of the liquid subtract the mass of the empty cylinder from
the mass of the cylinder with the liquid (B - A).
5. Finally calculate the density from the equation: density = mass /
volume.

Figure 1.5 measuring cylinder Figure 1.6

top pan balance

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How to determine the density of an irregularly shaped solid?

• Again, to calculate the density of an irregularly shaped solid you need to

measure first its mass and volume.
• The mass can be easily measured using a balance, but the volume can’t be determined
easily by measuring the dimensions.
• To measure the volume, you need to follow the following steps:
1. Fill a measuring cylinder with water (almost one third) and record the volume
(A)
2. Tie the solid with a thread and slowly lower it into the water until it’s
completely immersed. Record the new volume (B).
3. The volume of the solid is equal to the increase in volume (A-B).

• Finally calculate the density from the equation

Density = Mass/ volume.

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Chapter Two

motion

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2.1 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration:

• Motion can be defined as the change in position measured in terms of speed, distance and
time.
• Speed can be defined as the distance travelled by a body per unit time.
• The SI unit of speed is m/s, however longer journeys can be measured in km/h.
• Velocity is defined as speed in a given direction, for example if we say a cyclist is moving with
a speed of 10 m/s this is speed, but if we say he is moving by 10 m/s due east this is velocity.
• On paper velocity can be represented by an arrow: 10 m/s
• For motion in a straight line + and – can be used to indicate the direction (left or right).
• Speed (velocity) can be calculated as follows:

Speed = Distance / Time

• The average speed of a journey can be calculated as follows:

Average speed = total distance / total time

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Acceleration:
• We say that a moving object is accelerating, when its velocity is changing over time.
• We usually use the term acceleration when the speed is increasing with time and
deceleration when the speed is decreasing with time.

2.2 Motion graphs:

• These are graphs that are used to demonstrate the journey of a moving body.
• Motion graphs can be either distance-time graphs or speed (velocity)-time graphs.

• Distance – time graph:

• In a distance- time graph, the time (independent variable) is plotted on the x-axis against
the distance (dependant variable) on the y-axis.

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• The graph above is divided into three zones:

a) The first part (straight line) shows the body travelling with a constant speed away
from the starting point.
b) The second part (horizontal) shows that the body is stationary (not moving), therefore
the speed (velocity) is equal to zero.
c) The third part (straight line) shows that the body is returning back to the starting point
with a constant speed.
N.B. to calculate the speed at any point you have to divide the distance travelled at this point by
the time.

• Remember to calculate the average speed of the whole journey, use this rule:

Average speed =
Total distance / total time

• The gradient or slope of a distance-time graph at any point represents the speed at this
point.
• If the line is straight, this means that the speed is constant.
• The graphs below represent different examples of distance-time graphs:

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• Graph A represents an object ……………….

• Graph B represents an object ……………….
• Graph C represents an abject ………………
• Graph D represents an object ……………..
• Graph E represents an object ……………..
• Graph F represents an object ……………..

• Speed – time graph:

• In a speed- time graph, the time (independent variable) is plotted on the x-axis against the
speed (dependant variable) on the y-axis.

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• Below is an example of a velocity time graph representing a journey of a moving object.

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• To find out the distance travelled in a speed-time graph, you need to get the area under the
graph (DON’T USE THE EQUATION).

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• Free fall:
• This is any motion of a body when gravity is the only force acting upon it.
• Any object or body (regardless its mass) experiencing free fall near to the surface of the
Earth, will fall with a constant acceleration (increase in speed) called acceleration of free fall
(g), which is equal to 9.8 m/s2.

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Chapter Three

Forces and their effects

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• A force is a push or a pull and it might have a turning effect too.

• Forces are measured in Newton (N) using a spring balance (or a newton meter).
• Forces have both magnitude (size) and direction. That’s why we call them vector quantities.
• Forces have several effects. For example, they can:
1. Stop a moving object.
2. Move a stationary object.
3. Change the direction of a moving body.
4. Increase or decrease the speed of a moving body.

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5. Change the shape and size of a body.

• There are mainly to types of forces: contact forces and non-contact forces.
• Contact forces: these forces occur when the object or material exerting the force touches
the object or material on which the force acts e.g., Friction force, strain, air resistance.
• Non-contact forces: occur when the objects or materials are not touching each other e.g.,
magnetic force, gravitational force.

• The forces acting on any object or body could be either balanced or unbalanced.
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• If the forces are balanced this means that the forces acting in opposite directions are equal
to each other (in magnitude). In this case, the forces cancel each other and there is no
resultant or net force.
• In the case of balanced forces if:

• The body is stationary, it remains stationary.

• If the body is moving, it keeps moving at a constant
speed in a straight line.

N.B. This is called Newton’s first law of motion.

• In case of unbalanced forces, the forces in opposite directions are not equal to each other.
There is a resultant force or net force.

Combining forces:

• The sum of combining more than one force together is called the resultant force.
• The resultant force is the net force resulting from combining more than one force on a
certain body.
• The forces maybe: i) on the same line or ii) on two adjacent sides (with an angle between
them).
• I) when the forces are on the same line:
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• If the forces are in the same direction, then we add them together and the resultant force is
in the same direction.
• If the forces are in opposite directions, we subtract them from each other and the direction
of the resultant force is in the same direction as the biggest force.
• Examples:

• In the figure above in the first case the forces are in opposite directions so the resultant force
is equal to the difference between them (5-5= 0 N); there is no resultant force.
• In the second case the resultant force is equal to 10 – 5 = 5N to the right (the direction of the
bigger force).

• In the above example, the two teams in the photo at the top are in balance as there is no
resultant force (the left force = the right force). In the second case the team on the left will

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win as they pulled with a bigger force (400 N), so there is a resultant force of 100N (400 –
300) to the left.

• To sum up:

• If a moving body is under the effect of balanced forces, the body moves with a constant
speed in a straight line.
• If a moving body is under the effect of unbalanced forces, with the driving force greater than
the resistive force, it will accelerate (move with an increasing speed).
• If a moving body is under the effect of unbalanced forces, with the resistive force greater
than the driving force, it will decelerate (move with a decreasing speed).

Figure 1 showing an accelerating car

1. Friction:
• Friction is a contact force.
• Friction is a contact force that takes place when, two objects move or rub against
each other.

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• Friction force is always in a direction opposite to the direction of motion.

• Friction occurs because the surfaces of objects in contact are not completely
smooth (they have tiny projection and hollows that can be seen under the
microscope). When the objects move against each other the projections meet,
thus the objects stick together and the motion is opposed.
• The smoother the surface, the less the friction and vice versa. (That’s why smooth
surfaces are always slippery).

Increasing the friction force:

• Increasing the friction force between two moving objects may be useful in some cases.
E.g., stopping or reducing the speed of a moving car.
• This can be done by pressing the moving surfaces stronger against each other (by
applying car brakes for example). So, the projections press against each other more,
increasing the friction and therefore decreasing the speed or even stopping the car

Decreasing the friction force:

• Decreasing the friction force is useful when we want to increase the speed of motion.
• This can be done by placing a liquid between the surfaces of the two moving objects (e.g.,
oil). These liquid forces the projections a little apart, thus reducing the friction force
between them.

Other forces affecting the speed of moving objects:

• Friction is not the only force that affects the speed of moving objects. Other forces such as:
air resistance and water resistance have the same effect too.

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• Air resistance: as an object moves through the air, it pushes the air out of its way. The air
moves over the object’s sides and pushes back on it.
• Air resistance depends on the size and shape of the object. That’s why most cars are
designed in a streamlined shape to reduce air resistance.
• Air resistance is also called drag.

Figure 2 showing a streamline shaped car

• Water resistance: it occurs when a body is moving in water. As the body moves, it pushes
the water out of the way. The water molecules slide over its sides and pushes back on the
body.
• Water resistance opposes the motion in water.
• Objects that need to move in water with a high speed (e.g. fish and speed boats) have a
streamlined shape to reduce water resistance.
• Water resistance is also called drag.

Figure 10 a streamline shaped fish Figure 3 a streamline shaped boat

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• What is an elastic material?

It is a material that can change its shape or size when a force is applied to it. When the force
is removed, it restores its original size and shape. E.g., rubber bands, springs and stress balls.

• When a material changes its shape or size it is said to be deformed. If the object could restore
its shape or size, this is an elastic deformation, if it couldn’t, this is called plastic deformation.

• Stretching a spring
• When a force is applied (for example when a load is hung) to a spring its length increases.
This increase in length is called the extension.

• The extension can be calculated by the following equation:

Extension = new length – original length.

Where the new length is the length of the spring after the load (weight) is hung and

The original length is the length without the load.

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• Hooke’s law:

• The law is named after 17th-century British physicist Robert Hooke.

• The law states that:

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force

exerted on it.

• Hooke’s law applies until the spring reaches the elastic limit; beyond the elastic limit
it doesn’t apply.
• If a graph between the load attached to the spring on the x-axis (as it is the
independent variable) and the extension on the y-axis (as it is the dependent
variable), the graph is a straight line passing through the origin until the elastic limit,
beyond that it starts to become a curve.
• Within the elastic limit if the load is doubled the extension will be doubled.
• This equation applies only up till the limit of proportionality.

Figure 4 a graph showing the relationship between the load and the extension.

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3.6 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit area.
• It is calculated as follows:

Pressure= Force/ Area

P= F/A

• The unit for pressure is N/m2 (Newton per square metre) or Pascal (Pa).
• 1 N/m2 is equal to 1 Pa.
• The greater the force applied, the more the pressure and vice versa.
• The less the surface area, the more the pressure and vice versa.
• There are many examples relating surface area to the amount of pressure produced, such
as:
a) A knife has a sharp blade so as to have a small surface area, therefore increasing the
pressure.
b) The skiing shoes have a very sharp blade to have a small surface area, thus increasing
the pressure and avoid slipping.
c) The skating boards have a large surface area to decrease the pressure and allow
sliding on the snow.
d) Shoes with flat soles are better for walking on soft grounds (like mud or sand) than
high heels as the person’s weight (force) is spread over a larger surface area thus
decreasing the pressure and avoid sinking.
• This takes us to the conclusion that for solids:

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The smaller the surface area, the higher the pressure and vice
versa.

• Problems:

Example (1):
A box has a weight of 1200 N and has a base with a length of 2 m and width
3m. Calculate the pressure exerted by this box.

Solution:
Pressure= Force/Area
= 1200/ (2x3)
= 1200/6
=200 N/m2

Example (2):
If a box has a surface area of 30 m2 and exerts a pressure of 60 N/m2 what is its
weight?

Solution:
Force = Pressure x Area
= 60 x 30
= 1800 N
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Pressure in liquids:

Pressure in liquids is due to the weight of the liquid molecules acting on a certain body
inside the liquid. Pressure in liquids is characterized by the following features:
a) The pressure increases as the depth increases (as more molecules are pressing on the
body).
b) The pressure acts equally in all directions.
c) Pressure in liquids is not affected by area (if two persons are swimming at the same
depth one in a narrow well and one in a wide lake the water pressure acting on both
of them is equal).
Pressure in gases:
• Gas pressure is due to the collisions of the gas molecules with the walls of the container in
which they are in.
• As the temperature of the gas is increased (at a constant volume), gas particles gain more
kinetic energy, the particles move faster and colloid more frequently with the walls of the
container, thus increasing the pressure.

As the temperature of the gas increases, its pressure

increases.

• As the volume of the gas is decreased (at a constant temperature), particles have less space
to move in so, they tend to colloid more frequently with the walls of the container, thus
increasing the pressure.

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As the volume of the gas decreases, its pressure

increases

3.7 moments:
• Moment is defined as the turning effect of a force.
• The pivot is the fixed point around which the turning happen.
• When a force is applied at the pivot point, the object will not turn.
• The moment depends on two things:
a) The force.
b) The distance between the pivot and the place where the force is applied.
• Moments can be calculated as follows:

Moment = Force x Distance

M=Fxd

• So, to increase the moment you either increase the force or the distance from the pivot.
(that’s why spanners have long handles and door handles are placed at the other side from
the hinges)
• The unit of the moment is Nm (Newton metre)
• Recognise that

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when there is no resultant force and no resultant

turning effect, a system is in equilibrium.

• No resultant moment means that: the sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments.

• In the example below:

The clock wise moment (person A) = Force x Distance

= 1000 N x 1 m
= 1000 Nm

The anti-clock wise moment (person B) = Force x Distance

= 500 N x 2 m
= 1000 Nm

Since the clock wise moment = to the anti-clock wise moment

The two persons are in equilibrium (balanced)

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3.8 Centre of mass and stability:

• The centre of mass of an object is an imaginary point, where the object’s whole mass is
considered to be concentrated.

A. For asymmetrical objects: this is carried out by the plumb line method.
Steps:
1. Hang up the object.
2. Suspend a plumb line from the same place.
3. Mark the position of the thread.
4. The Centre of mass is along the line of thread.
5. Repeat the above steps with object suspended from different places.
6. The Centre of mass is where these lines cross.

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B. For symmetrical objects: the centre of mass is the point of intersection of the lines
of symmetry.

• What is the relationship between the position of the centre of mass of an object
and its stability?
• The lower the centre of mass of an object, the higher it’s stability.
• Question: why do double deck buses have a greater number of seats on the lower floor than
on the upper one?
• Answer: this is done to make the lower part heavier than the upper one and thus lowering
the centre of mass and increasing the stability.
• To determine the stability of any object a line of action is drawn from the centre of mass
perpendicular to the plane, if the line passes through the base the object will tilt and return
back again, if the line passes out of the base, the object will topple over.

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• Increasing the stability of an object can be done by:

I. Lowering the centre of mass.
II. Widening the base.

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Chapter four

Energy

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4.1 What is energy?

• Energy is the ability to do work or cause a change.
• The unit to measure energy is joules.
• There are many types of energies.

4.2 Different types of energies:

• Gravitational Potential energy: It is the energy stored inside a body to be used later.
Gravitational potential energy increases as the height increases.

• Kinetic energy: It is the energy due to motion. It increases as the speed increases.
• Chemical energy: It is the energy stored inside chemical bonds and released when the
bonds are broken down. This energy is stored in food and fuels. It could be considered as a
type of potential energy.

• Strain energy: it is the energy stored in stretched elastic materials. This energy helps the
body to return to its original shape. It is also can be considered as a form of potential energy.

• Solar energy: It is the energy coming from the sun. It is considered as the main source of
energy on earth.

• Light energy: It is the energy in light rays.

• Sound energy: It is the energy vibrating objects producing sound.
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• Radiation energy: It is the energy in electromagnetic radiation.

• Thermal energy (heat energy): It is the internal energy in a material due its
temperature. As the temperature increases, thermal energy increases. It is also called
internal energy.

• Nuclear energy: It is the energy released as a result of nuclear reactions.

• Electrical energy: it is the energy due to freely moving electrons.

4.3 energy transformations:

• According to the law of conservation of energy:

Energy cannot be created

or destroyed.
It is transformed from
one form to another.

• Examples of energy transformations:

i. Electric fan: electrical energy Kinetic energy (useful).
Heat energy (waste).
Sound energy (waste).
ii. Hydroelectric power stations (high dam):
Gravitational potential energy electrical energy (useful).
Heat energy (waste).
Sound energy (waste).
iii. Electric lamp: electrical energy light energy (useful).
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Heat energy (waste).

• KE and PE transformations:
In the diagram shown below a ball is been dropped from a height. At the top (the highest
point) the potential energy is at its maximum, while the kinetic energy is equal to zero as the
velocity is equal to zero. As the ball falls down the kinetic energy increases, while the
potential energy decreases. Just before it hits the ground, the kinetic energy is at its
maximum (equals to the potential energy at the top) and the potential energy is equal to
zero.

4.4 Efficiency:
• Efficiency measures the percentage of the input energy that is converted into useful output
energy.
• It is calculated as follows (extended)

Efficiency= (useful output energy /input energy) x 100

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4.5 Work and Power:

Work:
• Work is done when a force makes something move.
• Work done = energy transferred
• The greater the force applied or the distance moved, the more work is done.
• The SI unit for work is joule (J).
• Work can be calculated as follows (extended)

Work done = force x distance moved

W=Fxd

• The unit of distance must be in meters.

• If a force is applied on a stationary object (like pushing on wall), there is no work (the work
is equal to zero as the distance is equal to zero).

Power:
• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done.
• The SI unit for power is Watt (W) (joules / second)
• Power can be calculated as follows (extended)

Power = Work done / time taken.

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4.6 Energy resources:

• The energy resources we use on Earth can be renewable or non-renewable.
• Renewable energy resources are fuels that are easily replaced, once used for example:

1. Solar energy: it is the energy radiated from the sun. Solar panels can be used to heat
water using infrared and other electromagnetic radiation from the sun. Solar cells can
also be used to convert the light energy from the sun into electrical energy.

2. Wind energy: windmills or wind turbines are used to convert wind energy into electrical
energy, by driving generators. However, there are some associated problems in using
wind energy, some of which are:
I. Wind is variable.
II. Wind turbines are noisy.
III. They can spoil the landscape.
IV. Windy sites are needed.

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N.B Wind energy results from the heat energy provided by the sun via infrared and
other electromagnetic radiations.
3. Wave energy: where generators are driven by the up and down movement of waves in
the sea. However, it is difficult to build and also only few of them were successful.

4. Hydroelectric energy: where a river fills a lake behind a dam, then allowing water to fall
from the lake and turning generators e.g., the high dam. Associated problems are:
I. Expensive to build.
II. Only few areas in the world are suitable.
III. It could cause environmental damage.

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5. Tidal energy: it is similar to the concept of hydroelectric power stations, but the lake fills
and empties with the tide. It has the same problems as the hydroelectric power stations.

6. Geothermal energy: heat inside the earth is used to heat the water and convert it into
steam. The drawbacks of this method are that drilling is difficult and expensive.

7. Biofuels: these are fuels made from plants or animal matter e.g., wood, methane gas
from rotting wastes and alcohol made from sugar cane. The disadvantage of this method
is that huge areas of land are needed to grow plants.

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• Non-renewable energy resources: these are energy resources which are not easily replaced
(the rate at which they are consumed is faster than the rate at which they are produced)
e.g., fossil fuels, nuclear energy.

1. Fossil fuels: these are fuels that are formed from the remains of plants and tiny sea
creatures, which lived millions of years ago they are very concentrated source of energy.
They include coal, petrol (oil) and natural gas.
Disadvantages of using fossil fuels include:
I. Burning fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide gas, which causes
global warming.
II. Burning fossil fuels produce sulphur dioxide gas, which causes acid
rain.
III. Non- renewable (they will finish eventually)
2. Nuclear fuels: they mostly contain Uranium. The energy released from nuclear fission can
be used to produce electricity in nuclear power stations.
Disadvantages of using nuclear fuels include:
I. High and expensive safety standards needed.
II. Disposing nuclear wastes is very dangerous (as they remain
radioactive for thousands of years).
III. Nuclear power stations are expensive to build.

4.7 Energy for electricity:

• For electricity to be generated in power stations generators are turned by turbines.
• The turbines are turned by the energy of steam coming from boiling water.
• To produce the steam water is heated by using either renewable energy resources (like wind
or water) or non-renewable energy resources (like fossil fuels or nuclear fuel).
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Unit two

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Chapter five

Thermal Physics

5.1States of matter:
• Matter is classified into solids, liquids or gases.
Property Solid Liquid Gas

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1) Arrangement Tightly packed Particles are Unorganized

together close together with large spaces
with small between the
spaces particles.
2) Motion Vibrate in fixed Slide past each Random free
positions other motion
3) Shape fixed Not fixed Not fixed
4) volume fixed fixed Not fixed
5) Can it be No A little Yes
compressed?

Figure 5 A table showing a comparison between solids, liquids and gases

5.2The kinetic theory:

• Matter is made up of tiny particles that are in continuous motion.
• These particles have forces of attractions that are strong when they are
close and weak when they are far apart.
• Particles, when allowed to move freely, have random motion (in a zigzag
path) as they colloid with air molecules, this is called Brownian motion.

Figure 6 Brownian motion

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5.3Melting and boiling:

• Materials can change from one state to another by heating or cooling

• When a solid is heated particles gain more kinetic energy, they move
faster and further apart from each other (expand). If they were able to
overcome the forces of attraction, the solid melts and changes into a
liquid (melting). In solidification (freezing) the opposite happens.
• Melting point: it is a temperature at which a solid change into a liquid.
• The melting point is equal to the freezing point.
• When a solid is melting the time will be passing and the temperature will
not rise, as all the heat given is consumed in the melting process not in
rising the temperature.
• When a liquid is heated, particles gain more kinetic energy, move
further apart from each other and start to change into a liquid (boiling).
In condensation, the opposite happens.
• Boiling point: it is a temperature at which a liquid change into a gas.
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• The boiling point is equal to the condensation point.

• When a liquid is boiling the time will be passing and the temperature will
not rise, as all the heat given is consumed in the boiling process not in
rising the temperature.

Evaporation:

• Sometimes liquids may turn into gases at a temperature below their boiling points, this process
is called evaporation.
• This happens because the particles at the surface (highly energetic) gain some energy, so they
move faster and are able to overcome the attraction forces between them and the other
particles surrounding them, that’s why they turn into a gas.
• Evaporation occurs at the surface only (not throughout the whole liquid as in boiling).
• Evaporation causes cooling of the liquid.

5.4 expansion and contraction:

• When solids, liquids and gases are heated, particles gain kinetic energy,
so they move away from each other and expand, while upon cooling they
contract. That’s why when materials are to be used for particular tasks, it
is important to know how much they expand.
• The idea of expansion can be used in many applications such as,
thermometers and the bimetallic strip.
• A bimetallic strip is made of two different metals bonded together. Upon
heating, one of them expands more than the other, which makes the strip
bend.

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• Bimetallic strips are used in some thermostats. When the temperature

rises, the bimetallic strip bends, the contact separates and the current to
the heater is cut off. When the temperature falls, the strip straightens
and the current is switched on again. In this way, an approximately
steady temperature is maintained.

5.5 Temperature:
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic per particle in a certain
body.
• As the temperature gets higher, the kinetic energy increases and the
particles move faster.
• A rise in the temperature of an object, causes an increase in its internal
energy.
• Temperature is different from heat, for example a spoonful of boiling
water has the same temperature of a saucepan full of water (100 ◦C),
however the amount of heat (thermal) energy is much less.

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• The temperature is usually measured by a thermometer, which normally

uses the Celsius scale.
• The unit for measuring temperature is the degrees Celsius (⁰C).
• The absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which particles
are have least kinetic energy. This is equal to zero on the Kelvin scale,
which is equal to -273 degrees Celsius.
• To convert from degrees Celsius (⁰C) to degrees Kelvin (K) we use the
following equation:

T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

• Thermometers have two fixed points: 0 ⁰C, which is the temperature of

pure melting ice and 100 ⁰C, which is the boiling point of pure water.
• Thermometers depend on the idea of expansion, where the liquid in the
bulb expands upon an increase in temperature and rises up the scale of
the thermometer.

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5.6 Methods of heat transfer:

• Heat is always transferred from a hot body to a cold one.

• Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or radiation.

I. Conduction:
• When one end of a metal bar is heated, particles at the hot end gain energy and start to vibrate
more. This energy is transferred through the vibrations of particles from the hot end to the
cold end. This process is called conduction.
• For heat to be transferred by conduction from one body to another, the two bodies must be in
contact with each other.
• Conduction occurs in solids more effectively than gases and liquids as particles are close to each
other.
• Conduction can’t take place in space (vacuum) as it needs particles to be transferred.
• Materials which are able to transfer heat are called thermal conductors, while those who are
unable to transfer the heat are called thermal insulators.
• Metals are the best thermal conductors because they have freely moving electrons that
transfers the heat.
• Non-metal solids are thermal insulators, as well as most liquids.
• Gases (e.g., air) are the best insulators, that’s why putting on many layers of clothes keep you
warmer than one thick layer as those layers trap the air (which is a very good insulator) between
them.

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Describe an experiment to demonstrate the properties of good and bad conductors

of heat.

The wax method:

Take rods of different materials with the same dimensions (same length and cross-sectional
area), and attach a drawing pin to the end of each using the same mass of wax.

Using a container with four rubber-lined holes in the side. Insert the rods through the holes,
pushing them in the same amount. Fill the container with boiling water and start the
stopwatch. Time how long it takes the drawing pin to fall off each rod and compare the times.
The rod that allowed the pin to fall off fastest is the best conductor

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II. Convection:
• Convection occurs in fluids (liquids and gases), as their particles are free to move.
• In convection particles are heated from the bottom start to gain energy, move further away
from each other and become less dense, so they move upwards and replaced by colder particles
which are denser, thus creating a convection current.
• Heating liquids or gases is always done from the bottom as the coldest (denser) particles are at
the bottom, while cooling is done at the top as the hottest (less dense) particles are at the top.
• Convection can’t happen in space (vacuum) as it needs particles to be transferred.

Figure 7 convection current

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III. Radiation:

• Any object emits an invisible electromagnetic wave called infrared waves.

• Infrared waves can transfer heat by a process called radiation.
• Radiation can occur in space as infrared waves can carry heat without needing a medium
(particles).
• Heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation.
• Black, dull surfaces are good absorbers of infrared radiation and are also good emitters as
they stored the heat they absorbed.
• Shiny, white surfaces are good reflectors of infrared radiation and are poor absorbers

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Unit 3: Waves

Chapter six

General properties of waves

6.1 Properties of waves:

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 Waves are able to transfer energy without transferring matter.

 Waves happen as a result of vibrations or oscillations of particles.

 Waves are either longitudinal or transverse.

 Transverse waves:

Are waves where the direction of motion of particles is at

right-angles to the direction of propagation (travel) (up and down) e.g., light
waves (and all electromagnetic radiation), water waves and seismic S-waves
(secondary).

 longitudinal waves:

Are waves where the direction of motion of particles are

along with the direction (backward and forward) of the wave propagation (travel)

E.g., sound waves and seismic P-waves (primary).

6.2 Describing waves: Listed below are some of terms used to describe
waves.

 Speed:
 It shows how fast or slow the wave travels. It is measured in m/s

 The speed of a wave can be calculated by using the following equation

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Velocity = frequency x wavelength

V=fxƛ

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 Frequency:
It is the number of waves passing at a certain point per second. It is

measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency is denoted by the symbol (f).

 Period:
It is the time taken for one complete oscillation; it is measured in

seconds.

Period = 1/frequency
&
Frequency= 1/period

 wavelength:
It is the distance between any point on a wave and the equivalent

point on the next. Wavelength is denoted by the Greek symbol lambda (ƛ).

 Amplitude:
It is the maximum distance a point moves from its rest position.

 wavefront:
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It can be defined as the peak of a transverse wave or the

compression of a longitudinal wave.

 Crest (peak):
of a wave is the point on the wave with the maximum value of

upward displacement (highest point).

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 Trough:
of a wave is the point on the wave with the maximum value of
downward displacement (lowest point).

6.3 Wave effects:

1. Reflection:
When a wave hits a barrier (plane surface), it bounces off and change direction.
The waves are reflected from the surface at the same angle as they strike it. This
is because the law of reflection states that:

Angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)

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2. Refraction:

When a wave moves from a medium of a certain density to a

medium of a different density, the speed and direction of the wave changes,
however the frequency of the wave remains unchanged (e.g., When light passes
from air to water)

3. diffraction:

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 When waves face a certain obstacle, they either bend around its sides or spread
out as they pass through a gap.
 The smaller the size of the gap, the greater the diffraction.

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 Diffraction is only significant if the size of the gap is about the same size as the
wavelength.
 Light waves diffract more effectively than sound waves, which shows that they
have shorter wavelengths.

Figure 1a diffraction of waves to Figure 17b diffraction of waves to an edge

A gap

N.B. Water waves in a ripple tank can be used to demonstrate the reflection,
refraction and diffraction of waves (to a gap and to an edge).

Figure 2 the ripple tank

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Unit 3: Waves

Chapter seven

Light waves

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7.1 Nature of Light waves:

 Light waves are transverse waves.

 Light travels in straight lines called rays.

 Light is an electromagnetic radiation.

 Light can travel through vacuum (space).

 There is nothing that travels faster than light. It has a speed of 300,000 km/s in
vacuum (3 x 108 m/s).
 An object which produces its own light is called a luminous object e.g., the sun,
lamps.
• A non-luminous object doesn’t produce light e.g., the moon.

 For a non-luminous object to be seen it must reflect a light from a luminous object.

7.2 Reflection of light waves:

 When a light ray hits a mirror 9or any reflecting surface), it is reflected back.

 The incoming ray is called an incident ray.

 The outgoing ray is called a reflected ray.

 An imaginary line called a normal is drawn at right angles to the (mirror) surface.

 The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence
(i).
 The angle between the refracted ray and the normal is called the angle of
refraction (r).

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Figure 3 reflection of light

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 The laws of reflection state that:

1) The angle of incidence = angle of reflection

2) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all
lie in the same plane.

 How is an image formed in a plane mirror?

• As shown in the figure above, the light rays coming from the person are reflected
and some of these rays are reflected into the person’s eye. To the person, these
rays seem to be coming from a position behind the mirror, where he sees his image.
 The properties of image produced in a mirror:

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1. Same size as the object.

2. Same distance from the mirror as the object.

3. Upright.

4. Laterally inverted (left is right and right is left).

5. Virtual (light rays didn’t reach this position).

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 Differences between real and virtual images:

Real image Virtual image
Image can be obtained on a screen Image can’t be obtained on a screen.
Light rays actually meet at this point Light rays don’t actually meet at this

after reflection point after reflection.

Inverted Erect
e.g., image on the retina of the eye, e.g., image formed by a mirror.

image on the cinema screen.

7.3 Refraction of light waves:

 When a light wave passes from a transparent medium of a certain density to

another transparent medium of a different density it is refracted (bent).

 Refraction involves a change in the speed, direction and wavelength of the light;
however, the frequency remains unchanged (if the waves are produced from the
same source).
 The ray coming towards the medium is called the incident ray.

• The ray that bends inside the new medium is called the refracted ray (that’s why

a spoon looks bent if it is put in a glass of water)

 The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence

 The angle between the refracted ray and the normal is called the angle of
refraction.
 If the light ray is moving from a less dense to a denser material (e.g., from air to
glass, or from air to water), it slows down and bends towards the normal.

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 If the light ray is moving from a denser to a less dense material (e.g., from glass to
air, or from water to air), it speeds up and bends away from the normal.
 If the light ray falls perpendicular to the boundary between the two surfaces, it
passes without refraction.
 In deep water the wavelength and velocity are more than in shallow water.

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Figure 20 refraction of light

 Since the slab has parallel sides, the incident and emergent rays are parallel to
each other.

 Real and apparent depth:

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 By looking at the diagram above, the boy sees the fish closer (apparent depth) than

where it really is (real depth). This is because the light ray coming from the fish is

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refracted as it leaves the water into the air. To the boy’s eye the refracted ray
comes from the position where the fish apparently is seen.
 The inside surface of water, glass or any other transparent material can act like a
mirror, if the incident angle is equal to the critical angle.
 The critical angle: it is the value if exceeded by the incident angle total internal
reflection takes place.

Figure 21 total internal reflection

 The concept of total internal reflection is applied in optical fibres

(used in communication) and endoscopes.

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Figure 22a total internal reflection in optical fibres Figure

22b total internal reflection in endoscopes

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7.4 Dispersion of light waves:

 A prism is a triangular block of glass with sides that are not parallel to each other.

 When a beam of white light passes through a prism two things happen to it:

a) Refraction, b) dispersion.

 Dispersion means that the light ray is split into the seven colours of spectrum

(rainbow).

 The seven colours of the spectrum are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo
and violet.
 The red light is bent (refracted) least by the prism, while the violet light is the most
refracted, this is because red is faster and has bigger frequency than violet.
 White light is dispersed into the seven colours because it is made of several
wavelengths, while rays which are made of only one wavelength like laser are not
dispersed. A light which is made of only one wavelength is called a
monochromatic light.

7.5 Thin lenses:

 Lenses refract light and form images.

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 There are two main types of lenses: convex lenses, b) concave lenses.

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 The convex lens is also known as a converging lens (as it combines the light rays).

 The point where the rays converge is called the focal point or principal focus.
 The distance between the focal point and the centre of the lens is called the focal
length (F).
• Rays can pass through the lens in both directions, that’s why there is another focal

length (F’) on the opposite site.

 The ray passing through the centre of the lens is not refracted (it remains as a
straight line) (1)
 The ray parallel to the principal axis passes through (F) after leaving the lens. (2)

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• The ray passing through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis (3)

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• Properties of the image produced when the object is behind 2F’:

1) Real (as the light rays reached this point)

2) inverted

3) diminished (smaller)

4) formed between F and 2F

 What happens to the image if the object was moved to the left?
 It will be smaller
 It will move to the left (towards the lens)

 What happens to the image if the object was moved to the right?
 It will be larger.
 It will move to the right (away from the lens).

Properties of the image produced when the object is between F’ and

2F’:

 The image is:

1) real

2) inverted

3) enlarged.

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• Properties of the image produced when the object is in front of F’:

1) It appears behind the lens.

2) It is magnified (enlarged).

3) It is upright.

4) It is virtual (because the light rays didn’t actually reach this point)

 Convex lessons in this case can be used as magnifying glasses, binoculars, lenses of
the microscopes and telescopes.
• Properties of the image produced when the object is placed at 2F’:

1) Formed at 2F

2) Real

3) Inverted

4) Same size as the object

7.6 The electromagnetic spectrum:

 Light waves belong to the electromagnetic spectrum.

 These waves all travel with the same speed in vacuum as light rays.

 They are all transverse waves.

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 The diagram below shows the arrangement of the waves of the electromagnetic
spectrum, in increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength.

 Uses and harmful effects of the different waves of the electromagnetic

spectrum:

Type of Uses Harmful effects on people upon

electromagnetic excessive exposure
wave
1) Radio waves • Radio and television
transmissions.
• Astronomy.

• Radio frequency
identification (RFID)

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2) microwaves • satellite television. • Internal heating of body

• Mobile phones (cell phones). cells

• microwave ovens

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3) Infrared • Electric grills • skin burns

• short range communications

such as remote controllers
for televisions.
• Intruder alarms

• Thermal imaging.

• Optical fibres
4) Visible light • Vision

• Photography

• Illumination
5) Ultraviolet • Security marking. • Damage to surface cells

• Detecting fake bank notes and eyes, leading to skin

• Sterilising water cancer and eye

conditions.
6) X-rays • Medical scanning • mutation or damage to

• Security scanners cells in the body.

7) Gamma rays • Sterilising food and medical • mutation or damage to
equipment cells in the body.
• Detection of cancer

• Treatment of cancer.

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Chapter eight

Sound waves

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8.1 The nature of sound waves:

 Sound waves are longitudinal waves that are caused by vibrations.

 When an object vibrates a sound is produced, the vibrations are transmitted by

the particles of the medium in which they are in (solid, liquid or gas) until they
reach our ears.
 Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids or gases.

• Sound waves can’t travel through vacuum (space), they need particles of a
medium to vibrate and transfer the sound.
• The speed of sound is approximately from 330 – 350 m/s.

 Sound travels the fastest in solids then liquids then gases (due to the small
distance between particles).
 As the temperature increases, the speed of sound increases.

 Changes in pressure has no effect on the speed of sound.

 A healthy human ear hears a range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20000 Hz (audible

range)
 Sounds which have a frequency more than 20000 Hz are called ultrasounds.

• Ultrasounds can’t be heard by the human ear and are used in echo-sounders and
scanning the wombs.
 Sound waves can be diffracted, refracted and reflected.

 Reflection of sound waves causes an echo.

8.2 measuring the speed of sound:

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 The speed of sound can be measured as follows:

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 Person A fires the pistol, at this time smoke is released and person B starts as the
stopwatch as he sees the smoke. The stopwatch is then stopped, when the sound
is heard. The distance between the two persons is already measured.
 The speed is measured as follows:

Speed of sound= distance travelled / time

 8.3 Echoes:
 When a sound wave hits a hard surface, it is reflected an echo is heard a short time
after the original sound was heard.
• For the echo to be heard the sound has to travel to the wall and back again, that’s

why the speed of sound will be calculated as follows:

Speed of sound= double the distance / echo time

Or
Speed of sound= distance to the wall / half the echo time.

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 8.4 Characteristics of sound waves:

 Sound waves are characterized by having an amplitude and a frequency.

 Changing the frequency affects the pitch of a sound. A sound with a high frequency
has a high pitch (high note), while a sound with a low frequency has a low pitch
(low note).

 Changing the amplitude affects the loudness of the sound. A sound with a high
amplitude is a loud sound, while a sound with a low amplitude is a quiet one.
 As you move away from the source of the sound the sound becomes quieter but

the pitch doesn’t change.

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Unit4: Electricity & Magnetism

Chapter nine

Magnets

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 9.1 General properties of magnets:

 Each magnet has two poles; a north pole and a south pole.

 When a bar magnet is suspended it will swing then it will take a position where the
north pole will point towards the north direction and the south pole will point
towards the south direction.
 Similar poles repel each other, while opposite poles repel.

 Materials which are attracted to magnets and can be magnetized are called
magnetic materials.
 Magnetic materials include iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.

 Other materials which are not attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetized

are called non-magnetic materials.

Magnetic materials

Magnetically soft materials Magnetically hard materials

These are materials which are These are materials which are difficult
relatively easy to magnetize, but to magnetize, but don’t lose their
loses its magnetism easily e.g. magnetism easily e.g., steel.
Iron (temporary magnets) (permanent magnets)

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 Induced magnetism:

Magnetic materials become attracted to magnets, because they themselves

become magnetized when there is a magnet nearby, this is called induced
magnetism. The induced pole produced is opposite to the nearest pole of the
magnet. If this magnetic material is magnetically soft like iron it will lose its

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magnetism immediately after the magnet is removed, while if it is magnetically

hard like steel it will retain the magnetism for a while.

 How to make a magnet?

A magnetic material can be converted into a magnet (magnetized) by several

methods, such as:

a) Hammering in a magnetic field.

b) Stroking with a magnet. (The stroking must be in one direction)
The poles will be arranged as follows.

c) Putting it inside a coil carrying a (direct current) d.c (electromagnet).

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 How to demagnetize a magnet?

1) Heating

2) Hammering strongly many times

3) Putting in a coil containing a.c. (alternating current)

 9.2 drawing the lines of a magnetic field:

 The magnetic field of a magnet is the area surrounding it, in which its magnetic
force is exerted.

 The direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction of the force on the N
pole of a magnet at that point (the direction of the magnetic field is always
pointing from North to South)

 If you put a magnet under a piece of paper and sprinkle some iron fillings

on the paper, the iron fillings will take the shape of the magnetic field.

 A plotting compass can be used to draw the lines of the magnetic field around a
magnet.

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Procedure:

 Place the bar magnet at the center of the piece of paper so that its north pole is aligned
as shown.

 Place the compass near one pole of the magnet, and mark the positions of the ends
N and S, of the compass needle by pencil dots. ...

 Repeat the above until reaching the other pole

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 Join the dots together to make a line.

 More lines can be drawn by putting the compass in different positions.

 9.3 The electromagnet:

Figure 4 showing an electromagnet

 An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by

an electric current.

 Electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into a coil (solenoid), the
wire is usually made of copper, while the core is made of a magnetic material, such
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as iron or steel.

 Unlike the ordinary magnets, electromagnets can be switched on and off.

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 When the core is made of iron (soft magnetic material) the magnetism is
temporary; lost immediately after the current is switched off, while if it is made of
steel (magnetically hard material), the magnetism will be permanent.

 A soft iron core is used, when the magnet needs to be temporary (e.g., the electric
bell and electromagnets lifting junk car bodies), while hard steel cores are used in
permanent electromagnets (e.g., fire alarms).

 An electromagnet can be used to operate relay switches (this a small switch with
thin wires that can turn on the current in a much more powerful one).

 The relay switch:

Figure 5 showing a relay switch

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 This is a small switch operated by an electromagnet, used to turn on a bigger

switch.
 When the switch of the first circuit (the small one) is turned on, the electromagnet
is activated, thus attracting the other end of the bigger switch and the current
passes through it.

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Chapter Ten

Electricity

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10.1 Electric charge:

 Inside any atom there are positively charged particles called protons and

negatively charged particles called electrons.

• Usually, the protons and electrons are equal in number, that’s whys particles are

neutral.
 For a body to be charged, electrons should be lost (the body becomes positively
charged), or gained (the body becomes negatively charged).
 Opposite charges attract, while similar charges repel.

 The closer the charges, the greater the force between them.

 The SI unit of charge is the coulomb and has a symbol C.

 Electricity: is the flow of electrons in a conductor.

 The electric field is the region in which the electric charge experiences a force.

 The arrows on the lines of the electric field point to the direction where a positive
charge would move (repelling a positive charge and attracting a negative one)

 Materials that allow electrons to pass through them are called electric
conductors, e.g., all metals and graphite. This is because they have freely moving
electrons.
• Materials that don’t allow electrons to pass through them are called insulators,
e.g., all non-metals. This is because they don’t have free electrons.
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 How to differentiate between conductors and insulators?

 Set the circuit as shown in the diagram.

 If the bulb lights, the test item is a conductor. If the bulb does not light, the
test item is an insulator.

 10.2 Static electricity:

 When a material is rubbed against another material it becomes temporarily

charged, this is called static electricity or electrostatic charge. This mainly happens
in insulators.
 Static electricity can occur due to: a) rubbing (friction): when two insulators e.g.,
a plastic rod and a piece of wool are rubbed against each other some of the
electrons are transferred from one of them to the other, thus leaving one of them
positively charged while the other becomes negatively charged.

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This is responsible for the sparks and crackles that take place when you take off a
woollen pullover and if you slide out of a car seat and then touch the door, it may
even give you a shock.

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 The other method by which static electricity can occur by is, induction.

 This happens when a charged body is approached near an uncharged one the
charges in this neutral body re arranged, such that the charge facing the charged
body is the one opposite to it.
• Charging by induction doesn’t involve transfer of electrons.

 The uses of static electricity include: cling film, photocopiers and laser printers.

 10.3 Current:
 Current is the rate of flow of charge.

 The SI unit for measuring the current is the ampere (A or amp), this is measured
by a device called an Ammeter (symbol .) Ammeters can be digital or analogue.
 Ammeters are connected in circuits in series as they almost have no effect on the

current (as they have almost no resistance).

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 The direction of the current in a circuit is from the positive pole to the negative

pole, this is called the conventional current.

 This direction is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons (this misconception

is because the positive charge was discovered before the electrons)
 There are two types of current: 1) direct current (d.c.) and 2) alternating current
(a.c.)
 Comparison between types of current:

Direct current (d.c.) Alternating current (a.c.)

The current flows in one direction The current flows in different

directions
Produced by batteries Produced by an a.c. generator
Can’t be changed into alternate Can be changed into direct current

current.
Symbol: Symbol:

 10.4 Voltage:
 This is the as the work done by a unit charge passing through a component

 The scientific name of the voltage is potential difference (P.d.).

 The potential difference supplied by the cell and it is defined as the electrical
work done by a source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuit
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 When the current increases the voltage drops as some of the energy is wasted.

 The SI unit for measuring (p.d.) or (e.m.f.) is called the volt (V).

 The measurement is carried out by a device called voltmeter. Voltmeters can be

either analogue or digital.
• A voltmeter has a high resistance, which reduces the current, that’s why it is
connected in parallel.

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10.5 Resistance:
 As electrons flow in a circuit there is a force that opposes their motion, this is

called the resistance.

 A good conductor has low resistance, while a poor conductor has a high resistance

 The resistance reduces the electric current (reduces the brightness of a lamp or the
volume of a radio).
• The unit of the resistance is the Ohms (Ω).

• Ohm’s law describes the relationship between the resistance, voltage and current

as follows:

R = V/I

Where R is the resistance, V is the voltage and I is the current.

 Some factors affecting resistance:

 The length of the wire: the longer the wire the more the resistance.

 The diameter of the wire: the narrower the diameter of the wire, the more the

resistance, (thin wires have more resistance than thick ones).

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Short thick wires provide the least

resistance

 A component which provides resistance to a circuit is called a resistor.

 Resistors are classified into: a) fixed resistors and b) variable resistors.

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A) Fixed resistor:

It is a component, which provides a fixed value of

resistance to the circuit. This is usually added to circuits
in order to reduce the current.
The symbol of the fixed resistor in the circuit is as follows:

A) Variable resistor (rheostat):

 These kinds of resistors can provide variable resistance to a circuit, by controlling
the length of the wire, the resistance can be adjusted, thus the current can be
adjusted accordingly.

Figure 6 showing a variable resistor

 The variable resistor is used in circuits were the amount of current needs to be

controlled, such as: dimmer lamps and volume controls.

 The symbol of the variable resistor in a circuit is as follows:

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 10.6 energy and power in circuits:

 In any electric circuit energy is transferred from the battery or power source to the

circuit components then to the surroundings.

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 The power in any electric circuit can be calculated as follows:

P=IV

Where P is the power

I is the current
And V is the voltage.
 Since that power is the rate of doing work or energy (P = E/t), the amount of
energy supplied by a circuit can be calculated as follows:

E=IVt

where E is the energy,

I is the current,
V is the voltage
And t is the time.

 10.7 Paying for electricity:

 Electricity supply companies charge individuals for the amount of electricity they
consume.
 To do this a suitable unit should be used (the Joule is a very small amount of
energy, so a larger unit had to be used).
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 The unit used is called kilowatt-hour (kWh) and it is defined as the electrical
energy used by a 1kW appliance in 1 hour.
 1kWh = 3 600 000 J (1kWh= 1000 J/s x 3600s = 3 600 000 J = 3.6 MJ).

 The cost is calculated as follows:

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Cost = E x cost of 1kWh

 Worked example:

If the price of 1KWh (1 unit) of electricity is 10 cents, how much will it cost to use
a 3000 W electric heater for 3 hours?

Solution:

Convert 3000 W into kW by dividing it by 1000

3000W = 3kW
The amount of electrical energy used (E)= p x t = 3kW x 3 hrs = 9kWh
Cost = E x cost of 1kWh = 9 kWh x 10 cents = 90 cents

 10.8 Series and parallel circuits:

 Components in a circuit can be connected either in series or in parallel.

 In series circuits all the components are connected in one loop, while in parallel
circuits each component is in a separate loop.

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 Comparison between series and parallel connections:

Series circuits Parallel circuits

The current is equal at any point in The current is split between the
the circuit. branches. (The current from the
source (total current) is equal to
the sum of the currents in all the
separate branches)
The components (lamps) share the Each lamp receives full voltage
voltage, that’s why they glow dimly that’s why they glow brightly.
(the sum of the p.ds of the
components across the circuit is equal
to the total p.d. (e.m.f.) supplied by
the source.
The resistances of all the components The resistance of the components
are added together. connected in parallel, is lower than
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 …………. the resistance of any of them
alone.
If one lamp is removed, the others go If one lamp is removed, the others
out as the circuit is broken. keep working, as they are part of
an unbroken circuit.
All the lamps are operated by one Each lamp can be operated by a

switch. different switch.

 Advantages of parallel circuits over series ones:

1. Each component can be controlled independently.

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2. Each component receives full voltage (lamps are at full brightness).

3. The total resistance of the circuit is decreased.

4. If one of the devices is damaged, the other devices are not affected.

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 Electrical circuit symbols:

Generator

Potential divider

Heater

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Relay switch Transformer

 More about circuit components:

1. Galvanometer: It is used to measure the voltage, current and gives the

direction of the current as well.

2. The potential divider:

 it is made up of two resistors connected in series.

 It is considered as a voltage divider.

 It divides the voltage coming from the battery between both resistors
according to the ratio between their resistances.

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• A variable resistor can be used as a potential divider if it is connected like the

figure below. The slider divides the voltage between the parts according to its

position.

3. Thermistor:

• It is a type of resistor in which the resistance changes with changes in

temperature.

• As the temperature increases, the resistance decreases therefore more

current flows (not obeying Ohm’s law).
• Uses: a) Switching off a kettle, b) switching a fire alarm (using a relay switch
fig 10.2), c) keeping the temperature of the freezer or refrigerator.

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4. Light dependent resistor (LDRs):

• This is a resistor whose resistance changes with changes in light intensity.

• It is used in automatic street lights.

 10.9 Electrical safety:

 Electricity can be hazardous if electrical safety precautions are not

followed. Some of the dangers of electricity are:
I. Electric shock:

• This occurs when current from an electric circuit passes through a person’s
body then to the earth.
 This may be due to faulty wiring or damaged insulation.

 The strength of the electric shock depends on: the size of the current and
the duration of exposure to it.
 Damp conditions increase the severity of electric shock. (It decreases the
resistance between the person and the Earth).
 Dry floors and rubber shoes (or any insulating material), decreases the

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severity of the electric shock as it increases the resistance between the

person and the Earth.

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II. Fire risk:

 The main cause of fire risks is overheated cables.

e.g., 1 when a fire starts in a house because a large amount of current

passed through the wires and lead to their overheating.
e.g., 2 when a flammable liquid is placed near a hot electric appliance
(like a kettle or a heater) it may catch fire.

 Maintaining safety in electric circuits:

 A mains circuit is a circuit that carries the current from the mains

supply to our houses.

• A mains circuit carries an alternating current and a voltage that

depends on the country. Some countries use a range of 220 V – 240 V
while others have a range of 110 V – 130 V.
 A mains circuit consists of the following wires:

a. Live (line, hot or active) wire:

➢ This is the wire that carries the electrical energy from the
power station.

➢ Its colour is red or brown.

➢ For a circuit to be switched off safely a switch must be

connected to the live wire.

b. Neutral wire:

➢ It completes the circuit between the device and the power

station.
➢ Most of the time it has zero voltage

➢ Its colour is blue.

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c. Earth (ground) wire:

➢ This is done for extra safety.

➢ It connects the metal body of any device to Earth (thus

stopping it from becoming live).
➢ It has small resistance, so when the current is too large, it
allows large amount of current to flow through it to the fuse
for the circuit to be cut.

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➢ Not all devices have an Earth wire, as their outer case is made
up of plastic (acts as an extra layer of insulation) rather than a
metal. This is called double insulation.

 Switches:

➢ Switches should be fitted in the live wires.

➢ If the switch is open, electricity can’t reach the appliance.

➢ If switches are connected to the neutral wires, electricity can
reach a faulty appliance even if the switch is open, leading to
an electric shock.

 Trip switch (circuit breaker):

➢ They can act as electromagnet.

➢ It breaks the circuit when the current exceeds a certain limit.

➢ It is placed on the live wire.

➢ They can be used more than once (unlike fuses).

➢ When the current becomes too large, the iron core becomes
magnetized and attracts the iron rocker, which breaks the
circuit.
➢ It can be reset by pushing the reset button that closes the
contacts.

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 Fuse:

➢ It is made of a piece of wire which overheats, melts and breaks

the circuit when the current exceeds a certain limit. This is to
protect the device before the circuit cables overheat and catch
fire.
➢ It is placed on the live wire.

➢ Fuses have fixed values (3A, 5A, 13A). If the current exceeds

this value, the fuse blows and breaks the circuit.

➢ When you choose a fuse for a certain circuit, make sure that its
value is greater than the value of the normal current passing
through the circuit but as close to it as possible.

 10.10 The electromagnetic induction:

 What is Electromagnetic Induction?

 Electromagnetic induction is a process in which a conductor moving across a magnetic field or

a changing magnetic field linking with a conductor can induce an e.m.f. (voltage) in the
conductor. The voltage produce is called induce EMF and causes current called induced
current.

 Induced means to bring about, produce or cause. An induced current is one that is produced
by moving a conductor relative to a magnetic field.

 The movement of conductor should be perpendicular to the magnetic lines.

 This phenomenon is used in designing electric generators and transformers.

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Describe an experiment that shows that a changing magnetic field can induce an e.m.f. in a
circuit (electromagnetic induction):

➢ Wrap a wire
around a metal.

➢ connect the wire to a voltmeter or galvanometer (devices used to measure

voltage/pd).

➢ If you move the metal up and down between the opposite poles of two magnets,
you can see the voltage changing, indicating that e.m.f. has been induced in the
wire, or that an electrical current has been produced

 Factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f :

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1. The speed of motion of the conductor

2. The number of turns in the coil
3. The strength of the magnet.

 10.11 The magnetic effect of a current:

 If an electric current is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced.

 This field has the following features:

a. The magnetic field is in a circular form.

b. The field is strongest close to the wire.

c. The magnetic field increases by the increase of the current.

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 The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current can be determined by

the right-hand grip rule.

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 Magnetic field from coils:

 If the wire is coiled it is called a solenoid and the magnetic field direction can be

determined by the right-hand grip rule as shown below.

 Applications of the magnetic effect of a current:

1. Relay switch

2. Electric bell

3. Loudspeakers (also called moving – coil loudspeaker)

 How does the moving - coil loudspeaker work?

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 It is made of a cone which has a wire wrapped around a permanent

magnet.

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 The wire is connected to an alternating current.

 Variations in the AC electric current supplied to the device causes

variations in the magnetic field produced.
 The magnetic field from the coil now interacts with the magnetic
field from the permanent magnet.
 These magnetic fields either attract or repel each other.

 This causes a resultant force which causes the cone to vibrate.

 By increasing the size of the frequency of the current, the

frequency of the sound increases and vice versa.

 By increasing the current, the amplitude of the sound increases

and vice versa.

 This is also used in speakers of stereos and headphones

10.12 The electric motor:

 The principal of the motor depends on the idea that when a coil carrying a current
is placed between the poles of a magnet, such that it cut the magnetic field lines,
a force is produced having a turning effect.

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 To increase the turning effect:

 Increase the current.

 Use a stronger magnet.

 Increase the number of turns on the coil.

 Increase the area of the coil.

 To reverse the direction of the rotation:

 Reverse the magnetic field.

 Reverse the battery connections (reverse current direction).

10.13 Transformers:

Transformers are used to increase or decrease AC voltage.

Simple transformers are made up of:

1. A primary coil.

2. A secondary coil

3. A soft iron core.

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The alternating input voltage in the primary coil creates an alternating

current. This alternating current induces an alternating magnetic field in
the iron core. This field is transmitted through the core and an alternating
output voltage is induced in the secondary coil.

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The output voltage produced depends on:

1. The input voltage (in the primary coil).

2. The number of turns in both the primary and secondary coils.

 Types of transformers:

1. Step-up transformers: These transformers are used to increase the

voltage. In this type of transformer, the number of turns in the
secondary coil are more than that of the primary coil.

2. Step-down transformers: These transformers are used to decrease

the voltage. In this type of transformer, the number of turns in the
primary coil are more than that of the secondary coil.

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 In both types, the ratio between the number of turns in the primary and
secondary coils is equal to the ratio between the input and output voltage.

Input voltage V p / output voltage V s = number of turns on primary coil, N p / number of turns secondary coil, N s

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Or

V p / V s = N p /N s

 Worked example:

A step-up transformer is used on a 120 V line to provide a potential difference of

2400 V. If the primary coil has 75 turns, how many turns must the secondary coil
have?

Vp / Vs = Np / Ns 120/2400 = 75/ N s
V p = 120 V N s = (75 x 2400) / 120 = 1500 turns.
V s = 2400 V
N p = 75 turns
Ns = ?

 The use of transformers in high voltage transmission of electricity:

 Electrical current is transmitted from the power stations to houses and

factories, through the national grid (network of wires and cables).

 Since the current travel through long wires, a lot of energy is lost in the form
of heat. Also, these long wires increase the resistance. Thus, a lot of power
is lost.

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 Since P= V x I, the same amount of power can be transmitted with minimal

loss if we used a very high voltage and a very low current.
 This can be achieved by using transformers as follows:

I. At the power stations, a step-up transformer is used to before

transmitting the current over a long distance. This is to increase
the voltage and reduce the current to avoid energy loss.

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II. Before entering houses, a step-down transformer is used to

reduce the voltage (to avoid the damage of appliances) and
increase the current.

The advantage of using high voltage transmission

is, that it reduces energy lost by the current
transmitted.

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Unit 5, Chapter 11

Nuclear Physics

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 11.1 The nuclear model of the atom:

 The atom is made up of a central nucleus, which is positively charged,
surrounded by shells or energy levels.
 There are three sub- atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

 The following table summarizes the properties of these particles:

Proton Neutron Electron

Charge +ve Neutral -ve
Mass 1 1 Approximately

zero
Location nucleus nucleus Energy levels

 Any element can be expressed by using the nuclide notation as follows:

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 Where Z is called the proton number (atomic number), which represents the
number of protons in an atom of this element.
 While A is called the mass number (nucleon number), which represents the
number of protons plus neutrons in an atom of this element.
• The number of neutrons in a certain atom can be calculated as follows:
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
 An atom is normally neutral because the number of positive protons is equal
to the number of negative electrons.
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the atomic number but
different mass number (due to different number of neutrons).
 Most elements have more than one isotope.

 11.2 Radioactivity:
 Radioactivity is a spontaneous and random in direction emission of
radiation (alpha, beta or gamma) from a radioactive (unstable) parent
nucleus in order for it to transform into a more stable daughter nucleus of
a new element.
 Some isotopes are stable, while others are radioactive (unstable).

 For radioactive isotopes to become stable they emit one of these radiations:
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a. Alpha α

b. Beta β

c. Gamma γ
 This process is called radioactive decay.

 The time taken for a radioactive element to lose half its radioactivity, is
called Half-life (t 1/2 )
 It can also be defined as the average time for half the number of the
radioactive atoms to decay.

 These radiations (alpha, beta and gamma) have an ionizing effect.

 This means that if they hit an atom, they cause it to change into an ion by
making it lose or gain electrons.
 Radioactivity (radiation), can be detected or measured in counts/s or

counts/minute using either:

I. The Geiger – Muller (GM) counter: This is used to know the amount
of radiation.
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II. The cloud chamber: this is used to know the type of radiation.

 Anytime you use a counter to measure radioactivity, it will give you a count
this is because of the background radiation.

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 Background radiation: this is the radiation that is present all around in the
environment, even in the absence of a radioactive material.
 The sources that make a significant contribution to background radiation

include:

1) Radon gas: this is a radioactive gas found in the air.

2) Rocks and buildings

3) Food and drink

4) Cosmic rays (from the sun and the supernova)

 The characteristics of the three types of radiation:

Alpha Beta Gamma

Symbol Α β γ
Nature a nucleus of a He An electron Electromagnetic
atom (2 protons & wave
4 neutrons)
Ionizing effect Very strong Week (light and Very weak (no
(heavy and have a charge of -1) charge)
charge of +2)
penetration Low moderate Very high
How to stop it?  A sheet of • 3 mm of • 25mm of
paper Aluminium lead
 Skin • 1 m of

 6 cm of air concrete

 11.3 Safety precautions:

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 Ionizing nuclear radiation have harmful effects on living things specially

upon exposure to large doses.
 From the harmful effects of ionizing radiation:

a. Damage to cells

b. Cell death

c. Mutations

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d. Cancer

 Generally, the harmful effects of alpha particles are less than those of Beta

and gamma.

 For the above-mentioned dangers, radioactive materials should be moved,

used and stored in a safe way.
 From the safety precautions taken when dealing with radioactive
materials:
I. Reduce the exposure time.

II. Increasing the distance between the source and the person.
III. store radioactive materials in containers made of lead.

IV. Containers should have labels for their dangers.

V. Workers should wear protective clothing.

VI. Radioactive wastes are disposed according to their level of

radioactivity, either in steel containers and buried in concrete
bunkers or in glass or synthetic rocks and buried deep underground.

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Unit 6, Chapter Twelve

Space physics

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12.1 The solar system:

 The solar system is made up of:

➢ one star, the sun.

➢ Eight planets revolving around the Sun.

➢ Minor planets that orbit the Sun, including dwarf planets such as Pluto.

➢ Asteroids in the asteroid belt.

➢ Moons, that orbit the planets.

➢ Smaller Solar System bodies, including comets and natural satellites.

 The sun is a medium-sized star, which appears too big to us as it is the closest
sun to Earth.
 The sun is consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium.

 The sun radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Each planet revolves around the sun in a path called orbit.
 The order of the planets from the closet to the sun to the furthest is as follows:

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

 In comparison to each other, the four planets nearest the Sun are rocky
and small and the four planets furthest from the Sun are gaseous and
large.

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 How was the solar system formed? (The accretion model):

➢ Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was an interstellar
cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula.
➢ Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the
sun (accretion disc) in the center of the nebula.

➢ With the rise of the sun, the remaining material began to clump together.

➢ Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger
particles.

 The force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational
attraction of the Sun.
 The Sun contains most of the mass of the Solar System and this explains
why the planets orbit the Sun.
 In general, the strength of the gravitational field of any planet depends on:

I. The mass of the planet (at the surface of the planet).

II. The distance from the planet (around the planet), decreases as the
distance from the planet increases.
 The solar system is part of a galaxy called the Milky Way, which contains
billions of other stars and planets.
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• Other stars that make up the Milky Way are much further away from the
Earth than the Sun is from the Earth, that’s why these astronomical
distances are measured in light years.

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 A light year is defined as the distance travelled by light, in vacuum, in one year.
This unit is used to measure distances in space as they are very wide.

12.2 The Earth:

• Earth is the third planet in the solar system.

• The Earth’s orbit is oval (elliptical).

 The Earth has only one moon, which revolves around it in around 1 month.

• It takes the earth 365 ¼ days to complete one revolution around the sun, this is
called one year.
• Every 4 years the ¼ days add up to give one day, that’s why every 4 years we
have a leap year made up of 366 days.
 The extra day is added to February, which will have 29 days.

 It takes the Earth almost 24 hours to complete one revolution around itself. This
time is called a day.
 The Earth rotates around an axis which is slightly tilted.

 The rotation around of the Earth about this tilted axis results in:

1) The formation of the seasons.

2) The difference in the length of day and night throughout the year.

3) The apparent daily motion of the Sun (from east to west daily)

4) The change of the size of the shadow (longest at sunset and sunrise and shortest
during midday)

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12.3 The seasons of the year:

• As mentioned above the tilting of the Earth’s axis is the reason for the formation
of the seasons.
 There are four seasons in each year: winter, spring, summer, autumn.

 Each season lasts for three months.

 In the northern hemisphere the winter starts on the 21st of December, the spring
starts on the 21st of March, the summer starts on the 21st of June, while the
autumn starts on the 21st of September.
 The equator divides the Earth horizontally into two hemispheres.

 Since the Earth is tilted, when one hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, the
other will be tilted away from it.
 So, if it is winter in the northern hemisphere, it will be summer in the southern
part and vice versa.
 Since during the summer, part of the Earth will be exposed to the sun for a longer
period of time, the day will be longer than the night.

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12.4 Moon phases:

 The moon is the natural satellite of Earth.

 The moon has no atmosphere.

 Its gravity is 1/6 the gravity on Earth.

 We see the moon because it reflects sunlight.

 The moon orbits the earth in an almost circular orbit, in an anti-clockwise

direction.
 it takes approximately one month for the Moon to orbit the Earth; this
results in the moon phases we see each cycle.
• The moon takes the same time to turn on its axis, that’s why we always
see the same face of the moon.

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 12.5 the universe:

 The Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies making
up the Universe and that the diameter of the Milky Way is
approximately 100000 light- years.
 Light emitted from stars and galaxies will be at a certain wavelength in
the

visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

 Generally, if an object moves away from an observer the

wavelength of the light increases, as the light moves
towards the red end of the spectrum, this is called the
red-shift.
 On the other hand, if an object moves towards from an
observer the wavelength of the light decreases, as the
light moves towards the blue end of the spectrum, this
is called the blue-shift.
 The light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in
comparison

with light emitted on the Earth.

 That redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the

Universe is expanding and supports the Big Bang Theory.

 The big bang theory, suggests that there was a giant

explosion known as the big bang. This caused the
universe to expand from a single point forming our
universe today.

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 As a result of the initial explosion the universe continues to expand,

which
leads to the red shift seen from the other galaxies.

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