20EC0436 Wireless Communications R20
SIDDHARTH INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY: PUTTUR
(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu)
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Siddharth Nagar, Narayanavanam Road, PUTTUR-517 583
Subject Name & Code Wireless Communications
Subject Code 20EC0436
Unit-II Mobile Radio Propagation
1 a. How the received signal strength is predicted using the free space Propagation model?
Explain?
:Ans: The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite
communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space
propagation. As with most large-scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model
predicts that received power decays as a function of the T-R separation distance raised to some
power (i.e. a power law function). The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is
separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space
equation,
where is the transmitted power,
is the received power which is a function of the T-R separation,
is the transmitter antenna gain,
is the receiver antenna gain,
d is the T-R separation distance in meters,
L is the system loss factor not related to propagation ( , and
λ is the wavelength in meters.
The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, is given b,y
The effective aperture is related to the physical size of the antenna, and λ is related to the
carrier frequency by
where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz,
is the carrier frequency in radians per second, and
c is the speed of light given in meters/s.
The values for and must be expressed in the same units, and and are dimensionless
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quantities
b. If a transmitter produces 50W of power, express the transmit power in nits of dBm,
dBW. If 50W is applied to a unity gain antenna with 900MHz carrier frequency, find
the receiver power in dBm at a free space distance of 100m from the antenna. What is
Pr (10 km)?Assume unity gain receiver antenna.
Ans: Given: Transmitter power,
Carrier frequency,
Wavelength,
(a) Transmitter power, ( ) ( )
[ ]
(b) Transmitter power, ( )
The received power can be determined
The received power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of dBm using equation, where
and d = 10km
* +
* +
2 a. Explain the ground reflection (two-ray) model. And derive the expression for total E-
field envelope |ETOT|.
Ans:. The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in Figure is a useful propagation model that is
based on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected
propagation path between transmitter and receiver. This model has been found to be reasonably
accurate for predicting the large-scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers for
mobile radio systems that use tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-
sight microcell channels in urban environments.
The total received E-field, , the resultant of the direct line-of-sight component, , and
the ground reflected component, .
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is the height of the transmitter and is the height of the receiver.
If is the free space E-field (in units of V/m) at a reference distance from the transmitter,
then for d > the free space propagating E-field is given by
d>
Where | represents the envelope of the E-field at d meters from the transmitter.
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d'; and the
reflected wave that travels a distance d". The E-field due to the line-of-sight component at the
receiver can be expressed as
( )
and the E-field due to the ground reflected wave component at the receiver can be expressed as,
( )
According to laws of reflection in dielectrics given in
And
Where Г is the reflection coefficient for ground.
The resultant E-field, assuming perfect ground reflection (i.е., Г = - 1 and = 0 ) is the vector
sum of and and the resultant total E-field envelope is given by
| | | |
The electric field E TOT (d,t) can be expressed as the sum of equations is
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
b. Using the method of images, derive the path difference, phase difference, and
path loss for the two ray model.
Ans:
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Using the method of images, which is demonstrated by the geometry of Figure below,
the path difference, A, between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected paths can be expressed
as
√ √
When the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to equation can be
simplified using a Taylor series approximation
Once the path difference is known, the phase difference between the two E- field
components and the time delay between the arrival of the two components can be easily
computed using the following relations
phase difference,
also,
Time delay,
The power received at d is related to the square of the electric field through equation. Combining
all equations, the received power at a distance d from the transmitter can be expressed as
3 a. Derive the received power at a distance d from the transmitter for the two-ray
ground bounce model.
Ans: If the received E-field is evaluated at a distance d,, say at , equation can be expressed
as
( ) ( ( )) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) [ ]
Referring to the phasor diagram of Figure below which shows how the direct and ground
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reflected rays combine, the electric field (at the receiver) at a distance d from the transmitter can
be written as
| | √[ ] [ ]
As we know that,
| | √[ ] [ [ ]
√[ ] [ ]
√
√
| |
Note that equation may be simplified whenever, .
From phase difference,
The received E-field can be approximated as
| |
b. Briefly observe relative permittivity and conductivity of different materials at
various frequencies.
4 a. Calculate reflection coefficients between two dielectrics for two cases of parallel and
perpendicular E-field polarization with neat diagram.
Ans: Figure shows an electromagnetic wave incident at an angle with the plane of the
boundary between two dielectric media. As shown in the figure, part of the energy is reflected
back to the first media at an angle ,, and part of the energy is transmitted (refracted) into the
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second media at an angle ,. The nature of reflection varies with the direction of polarization of
the E-field.
In Figure, the subscripts i, r, t refer to the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields, respectively.
Parameters and represent the permittivity, permeability, and conductance of
the two media, respectively. If a dielectric material is lossy, it will absorb power and may be
described by a complex dielectric constant given by
where,
and is the conductivity of the material measured in Siemens/meter. The terms and are
generally insensitive to operating frequency when the material is a good conductor .
.
(b).E-field normal in plane of incidence
The reflection coefficients for the two cases of parallel and perpendicular E-field polarization at
the boundary of two dielectrics are given by
(E-field in plane of incidence)
(E-field normal in plane of incidence)
Where is the intrinsic impedance of the i th medium (i = 1, 2).
b. Illustrate with suitable diagram equivalent knife edge geometry for receiver
located in shadow region and state its limitations.
Ans: Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and
buildings is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area. Generally, it is
impossible to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses, and in practice prediction is a
process of theoretical approximation modified by necessary empirical corrections When
shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation caused by
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diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge. This is the
simplest of diffraction models, and the diffraction loss in this case can be readily estimated using
the classical Fresnel solution for the field behind a knife edge (also called a half-plane).
Consider a receiver at point R, located in the shadowed region (also called the diffraction zone).
The field strength at point R in Figure is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the secondary
Huygen's sources in the plane above the knife edge.
.
The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as compared to the free space E-field, is
given by
| |
In practice, graphical or numerical solutions are relied upon to compute diffraction gain. A
graphical representation of as a function of u is given in Figure. An approximate
solution for equation provided by Lee.
5 a. Derive the relation between vertical and horizontal field components at a dielectric
boundary in matrix form.
Ans: For the case of elliptical polarized waves, the wave may be broken down (depolarized) into
its vertical and horizontal E-field components, and superposition may be applied to determine
transmitted and reflected waves. In the general case of reflection or transmission, the horizontal
and vertical axes of the spatial coordinates may not coincide with the perpendicular and parallel
axes of the propagating waves.
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[ ] [ ]
Where and are the depolarized field components in the horizontal and vertical
directions, respectively, are the horizontally and vertically polarized components of
the incident wave, respectively, and are time varying components of the
E-field which may be represented as phasors. R is a transformation matrix which maps vertical
and horizontal polarized components to components which are perpendicular and parallel to the
plane of incidence. The matrix R is given by
* +
Where θ is the angle between the two sets of axes, as shown in Figure.. The depolarization
matrix is given by
[ ]
Where = Gamma x for the case of reflection and for the case of
transmission.
b. (i) Write Brewster angle.
(ii)Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on poor ground, having a
permittivity of 𝜀 =4 at the frequency of 100 MHz. Also calculate the same for
typical ground with permittivity of 𝜀 =15.
Ans: Brewster angle
The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin. It occurs
when the incident angle is such that the reflection coefficient is equal to zero. The
Brewster angle is given by the value of which satisfies
For the case when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a relative
permittivity equation can be expressed as
Note that the Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel) polarization.
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(ii). Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on poor ground, having a
permittivity of 𝜀 =4 at the frequency of 100 MHz. Also calculate the same for typical
ground with permittivity of 𝜀 =15.
Solution: In accordance to the Brewster angle can be given by,
For
√ √ √ √ √
For
Brewster angle, √ √ √ √ √
6 a. (i) Explain reflection from perfect conductors.
Ans: Since electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a perfect conductor a plane wave incident
on a conductor has all of its energy reflected. As the electric field at the surface of the conductor
must be equal to zero at all times in order to obey Maxwell's equations, the reflected wave must
be equal in magnitude to the incident wave. For the case when E-field polarization is in the plane
of incidence, the boundary conditions require that
and (E-field in plane of incidence)
Similarly, for the case when the E-field is horizontally polarized, the boundary conditions require
that
and (E-field not in plane of incidence)
Referring to above equations , we see that for a perfect conductor, , and
regardless of incident angle. Elliptical polarized waves may be analyzed by using superposition.
(ii)Explain multiple knife-edge diffraction.
Ans: In many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of
more than one obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all of the obstacles must
be computed. Bullington suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent
obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-edge diffraction models. This
method, illustrated in Figure, oversimplifies the calculations and often provides very optimistic
estimates of the received signal strength. In a more rigorous treatment, Millington et. al., gave a
wave-theory solution for the field behind two knife edges in series. This solution is very useful
and can be applied easily for predicting diffraction losses due to two knife edges. However,
extending this to more than two knife edges becomes a formidable mathematical problem. Many
models that are mathematically less complicated have been developed to estimate the diffraction
losses due to multiple obstructions.
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b. Find the Fraunhofer distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and
operating frequency of [Link] antenna have unity gain. Calculate the path loss?
Solution: Given
Operating frequency, f = 900MHz
Wavelength,
Fraunhofer distance,
Path loss, * + * +
7 a. Draw neat diagrams illustrating knife-edge geometry with appropriate notations.
b. Explain the dependence of surface roughness on the frequency and angle of incidence.
Ans:
If the surface roughness and the incident angle are not changed ( lc is 15 015λ0 and θi is
45°), the wavelengths of the incident light are changed to 0.488µm, 0.532µm and 0.633µm, and
then the obtained single-scattering intensity curve of p-polarized light. The results show that the
influence of the incident light wavelength on the scattering intensity distribution can be almost
ignored.
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(Note: in this equation refers to the angle between the direction of incident wave and the
surface.) Surface roughness depends on wavelength (carrier frequency) and incident angle.
Surface appears "Tougher" with the increase of frequency or decrease of incident angle (the
angle between the direction of wave propagation and the surface normal).
8 a. Explain about Fresnel zone geometry model?
Ans: Consider a transmitter and receiver separated in free space as shown in Figure a. Let an
obstructing screen of effective height h with infinite width (going into and out of the paper) be
placed between them at a distance from the transmitter and . from the receiver. It is
apparent that the wave propagating from the transmitter to the receiver via the top of the screen
travels a longer distance than if a direct line-of-sight path (through the screen) existed.
Assuming and then the difference between the direct path and the diffracted
path, called the excess path length ( ),, can be obtained from the geometry of Figure b, as
The corresponding phase difference is given by
Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter which is given by
√ √
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b. A mobile is located at 5 km away from a base station and uses a vertical λ/4
monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55dB to receive cellular radio signals. The E
field at 1km from the transmitter is measured to be V/m. The carrier frequency
used for the system is 900MHz.
(i) Find the length and the effective aperture of the receivingantenna.
(ii) Find the received power at the mobile using the two-ray ground reflection
model. Assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is 50m and the
receiving antenna is 1.5m above ground.
Solution: Given data
T-R separation distance = 5km
E-field at a distance of 1km = V/m
Frequency of operation, f = 900MHz
λ=
Length of the antenna, L =
. Gain of monopole antenna can be obtained
Gain of antenna = 2.55 dB = 1.8
(c) Since √ , the electric field is given by
| |
| | [ ( )
]
| |
The received power at a distance of can be obtained
⌈ ⌉
[ ]
9 a. Illustrate with diagram of Fresnel zones for different knife-edge diffraction
scenarios?
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b. Briefly explain the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact propagation
in a mobile communication system
Ans: Reflection, .diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mech- anisms which
impact propagation in a mobile communication system. These mechanisms are briefly explained
in this section, and propagation models which describe these mechanisms are discussed
subsequently in this chapter. Received power (or its reciprocal, path loss) is generally the most
important parameter predicted by large-scale propagation models based on the physics of
reflection, scattering, and diffraction. Small-scale fading and multipath propagation may also be
described by the physics of these three basic propagation mechanisms.
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object which has
very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflections
occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing
surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending
of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter
and receiver.
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels con- sists of objects with
dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per
unit volume is large. Scattered waves are pro- duced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by
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other irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce
scattering in a mobile communications system.
10. a. Explain scattering in mobile radio environment.
Ans: The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than what is
predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone. This is because when a radio wave
impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to
scattering. Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter energy in all directions, thereby
providing additional radio energy at a receiver.
Flat surfaces that have much larger dimension than a wavelength may be modeled as reflective
surfaces. However, the roughness of such surfaces often induces propagation effects different
from the specular reflection described earlier in this chapter. Surface roughness is often tested
using the Rayleigh criterion which defines a critical height ( ) of surface protuberances for a
given angle of incidence . given by
A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance his less than h, and is
considered rough if the protuberance is greater than For rough surfaces, the flat surface
reflection coefficient needs to be multiplied by a scattering loss factor, , to account for the
diminished reflected field. Ament assumed that the surface height h is a Gaussian distributed
random variable with a local mean and found to be given by
[ [ ] ]
b. Explain radar cross section model.
Ans: In radio channels where large, distant objects induce scattering, knowledge of the physical
location of such objects can be used to accurately predict scattered signal strengths. The radar
cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power density of the
signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the radio wave incident
upon the scattering object, and has units of square meters. Analysis based on the geometric
theory of diffraction and physical optics may be used to determine the scattered field strength.
For urban mobile systems, models based on the bistatic radar equation may be used to conceived
power due to scattering in the far field. The bistatic radar equation describes the propagation of a
wave traveling in free space which impinges on a distant scattering object, and is then reradiated
in the direction of the receiver, given by
where and are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter and receiver,
respectively. In equation, the scattering object is assumed to be in the far field (Fraunhofer
region) of both the transmitter and receiver. The variable RCS is given in units of dB m², and
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can be approximated by the surface area (in square meters) of the scattering object, measured in
dB with respect to a one square meter reference.
Several European cities were measured from the perimeter and RCS values for several buildings
were determined from measured power delay profiles. For medium and large size buildings
located 5-10 km away, RCS values were found to be in the range of 14.1dB m² to 55.7 dB m².
