Theory Notes

PHYSICS-1
(15B11PH111 )
Introduction
15B11PH111 Physics-1 1
The whole course will be covered through approximately
❑Lectures (40)
❑Tutorials (11) Teaching Process
Evaluation scheme
Instrument Marks Duration Description
Test-1 (T1) 20 1 hr Course covered up to T1
Test-2 (T2) 20 1 hr Course covered between T1 and T2
END Semester Exam 35 2:00 hrs Full course
Teacher’s Assessment (TA) 25 Entire Semester
Total 100
Teacher’s Assessment (25): PBL (10), Class Test (5) , Assignments, Internal assessment,
Attendance, and regularity in classes
15B11PH111 Physics-1 2
Books
OPTICS by Ajoy Ghatak
Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
Reference Books:
•E. Hecht, Optics, Pearson Education.
•F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, Tata McGraw Hill.
•A. Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, Mc Graw Hill International.
•Zemansky, Thermodynamics
15B11PH111 Physics-1 3
Course Outline
1. Interference
2. Diffraction
3. Polarization
4. Relativity
5. Quantum Mechanics
6. Radiation
7. Atomic Structure Physical
Optics
Modern
Physics
15B11PH111 Physics-1 4
•Course is designed to cover a broad aspect of physics,
required for engineering student
•To improve logical thinking to solve physical problems
in science & technology
•Basic knowledge for higher semester and higher
education Objective
•Sufficient understanding of wave nature of light and
related phenomenon, Relativity, Quantum mechanics,
Thermodynamics and their applications. Learning outcomes
15B11PH111 Physics-1 5
S. No. DESCRIPTION COGNITIVE
LEVEL
C101.1 Recall the basic principles of physics related to optics,
relativity, quantum mechanics, atomic physics. C1
(Remembering)
C101.2 Illustrate the various physical phenomena with
interpretation based on the mathematical
expressions involved. C2
(Understanding)
related to wave nature of light, relativity, quantum
mechanics and atomic physics. C3
(Applying)
C101.4 Analyze and examine the solution of the problems
using physical and mathematical concepts involved. C4
(Analyzing) COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon the completion of this course, students will be
able to
15B11PH111 Physics-1 6
Nature of light: a wave or a particle???
■Corpuscular theory ( Newton )
■Wave nature ( Huygens )
■Double-slit interference experiment ( Young )
■Light is an electromagnetic wave ( Maxwell )
■Photoelectric effect –existence of light quanta –
photons ( Einstein )
■Photons have momentum( Compton )…..The story of Light
15B11PH111 Physics-1 7
In 1924 Einstein wrote, “There are therefore now two theories of light,
both indispensable, and … without any logical connection .”
Evidence for wave nature of light
Diffraction, Interference, Polarization
Evidence for particle nature of light
Photoelectric effect and Compton effect
✔Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that are only explicable
in terms of wave properties.
✔Light is always detected as packets (photons); if we look, we never observe
half a photon.
✔Number of photons proportional to energy density ( i.e. to square of
electromagnetic field strength. Wave – Particle Duality of Light
15B11PH111 Physics-1 8
Waves are characterized by crest (highs) and trough
(lows).
There are two types of common waves.
i) Light wave ii) Sound wave Wave
Nature of Waves
• Wave - a disturbance that travels from one point to another.
• It is a way in which energy is transmitted from place to place without
physical movement of material from one place to another.
Waves are also classified as:
❖ Transverse wave
❖ Longitudinal wave
15B11PH111 Physics-1 9How light travel from one source reaches other location?
Transverse wave
■The waveform appears in the shape of sine curve.
■A wave in which the motions of the matter particles are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave
itself.
15B11PH111 Physics-1 10
Longitudinal wave
A wave in which the motions of the matter particles are
in the same direction as the wave propagation.
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Physical Description of a wave
Wavelength,
Amplitude,
Frequency,
Phase
waves of various frequencies
the lower waves have higher frequencies than those above.
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Phase of a wave
The phase of a wave relates the position of a feature, typically a peak or a trough
of the waveform , to that same feature in another part of the waveform.
❑The entire argument of the sine wave is known
as the phase of the wave.
❑Phase relates the spatial position of wave with
time coordinate.
where φ0 is known as initial phase
15B11PH111 Physics-1 13
Let for a path difference x, the phase difference is φ.
So for path difference x the phase difference would be: Phase difference & path difference
15B11PH111 Physics-1 14
❑The phase difference between two signals of the same frequency can be thought of
as a delay or advance in the start of one signal's cycle with respect to another.
❑Usually, it is expressed in the unit of angle. Phase difference
Positions of the peaks (X),troughs (Y) and zero-crossing points (Z) coincide. Thus phase
Waves in-phase
Combined waves
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Phase difference
Waves out -phase
Combined waves
Positions of the peaks (X), troughs (Y) and zero-crossing points (Z) are opposite. Thus
15B11PH111 Physics-1 16
15B11PH111 Physics-1 17Wavefront
■It is the surface made up of particle having same phase during propagation
of energy by method of oscillation or during propagation of wave.
■Direction of propagation of energy i.e. ray is always perpendicular to
wavefront.
■The shape of wavefront depends on the shape of the source of disturbance.
■When the source of light is a point source the wavefront formed will be
spherical wavefront, similarly cylindrical wavefront for line source and plane
wavefront for the source at infinity.
When two or more waves travel through the same medium
simultaneously , the resultant displacement at a point is the vector sum
of the displacement due to the individual waves. Principle of Superposition
■When two separate waves arrive at the same place in space,
they overlap and simply add (subtract) without permanently
destroying or disrupting either wave.
■The resulting disturbance at each point in the region of overlap
is the algebraic sum of the individual constituent waves at that
location.
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Coherent Sources
Sources, which emit waves (mostly light) of the same frequency,
nearly same amplitude and also are always in phase with each other
or having a constant phase relationship between them, known as
Coherent sources.
15B11PH111 Physics-1 19
15B11PH111 Physics-1 201) Nature of light is:[CO1]
a)Longitudinal
b)Transverse
c)Longitudinal and Transverse
d)None of these
2) Wave Nature of Light can be explained by :[CO1]
a)Photoelectric effect
b)Compton Effect
c)Interference
d)Diffraction
3) Coherent sources have [CO1]
a)same frequency, same amplitude and constant Phase difference
b) same frequency, different amplitude and constant Phase difference
c) same Frequency, same amplitude (phase doesn't matter)
d)None of the above
Multiple Choice Questions:
(x)? [CO2]
5) If the source is in the from of point and line the wave front will be
respectively, [CO1]
a)Spherical and Cylindrical
b)Concave and Convex
c)Convex and Concave
d)None of the above
Multiple Choice Questions:
15B11PH111 Physics-1 22■What do you mean by wave and wavefront? [CO1]
■Discuss the four physical quantity used to describe a wave? [CO2]
■With the help of representative wave diagram explain the
situation when two waves are in phase and out of phase? [CO2]
■Explain briefly the principle of superposition of waves? [CO2]
■What is coherent source? Can two independent sources be
coherent? [CO2]
Subjective Questions:
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1Content to be covered
❑Preview of superposition
❑Generation of Coherent sources
❖Division of wave front
❖Brief about YDSE
❑Fresnel’s bi-prism
❖Distance Between Virtual Sources: Displacement method
❖Distance Between Virtual Sources: Deviation method
❖Displacement of fringes
❖Fringes with white light
Lecture #2
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS- by Ajay Ghatak
Superposition of waves
Consider the superposition of two sinusoidal waves at a particular point. Let the displacements
produced by these waves are given as
Resultant displacement according to superposition principle
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S1
S2P
Let y1 and y2 are the
displacements of two
waves coming from
S1 and S2Superposition of two waves: Intensity
distribution
P
MAXIMA
⇒ Imax > I1+I2
MINIMA
Law of conservation of energy
⇒ Imax > I1+I2
⇒ Imin < I1+I2
This establishes that in the interference pattern, intensity of light is simply being redistributed i.e.
energy is being transferred from regions of destructive interference to the regions of constructive
interference. No energy is being created or destroyed in the process. Thus the principle of energy
conservation is being obeyed in the process of interference of light
For incoherent light
of constituent waves.
Visibility of the fringes ( V)
At point P for maxima we must have
Production of Coherent Sources
In practice it is not possible to get independent two sources which are coherent.
However, two virtual sources, formed from one single source, can act as
coherent sources. There are two ways to get two coherent sources from one
Single source
1. By Division of Wave front: Two wave fronts are produced from a single wave
Examples : Young’s double slit experiment,
Fresnel Bi-prism, Lloyd’s Mirror, Fresnel Mirror
2. By Division of Amplitude: Two waves are formed from a single source due to
reflection and refraction. One of these source is real and other is virtual source.
Examples : Newton’s Ring,
Michelson Interferometer,
Thin film interference
glass
plate
two virtual
images of
point source point
source
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Interference Fringes : Division of wave front
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Interference Fringes : Division of wave front
For Intensity to be maximum at Point P
If d<< D, then S2P ≈ S1P ≈ D, we will get
Bright Fringe
Distance between any two
consecutive bright fringes
Fringe width
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Similarly for dark fringes,
So we get, for dark and bright fringes
Dark Fringe
Thus fringe width of
dark and bright
fringes are same.
Visibility of the fringes ( V)
Interference Fringes : Division of wave front
15B11PH111 ODD2020 15 Physics-1 Separation between dark
and bright fringes
Two beams of equal irradiance (I0): case study YDSE
Intensity is given by
But path difference for the case of YDSE
the phase difference is given by
Hence, the maximum intensity
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In Double slit experiment: Insert a thin transparent glass
beam.
Time required for the light to reach from
S2 to the point P is
Path difference
position of nth bright fringe
15B11PH111 ODD2020 17 Physics-1 To interfere at point P , they should reach
The figure shows a photograph that illustrates the kind of interference
fringes that can result when white light is used in Young’s experiment.
Why does Young’s experiment separate white light into its constituent
colors? In any group of colored fringes, such as the two singled out,
why is red farther out from the central fringe than green is? Why is the
central fringe white? YDSE with White Light
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d
a
DO
Fresnel Biprism: (Augustin-Jean Fresnel)
It consists of two thin acute angled prisms joined at the bases. It is constructed
about 30´. A portion of the incident light is refracted downward and a portion
upward.
The fringe width
Position of bright fringes from O
Position of dark fringes from O
0,1,2,3 …. 15B11PH111 ODD2020 19 Physics-1
Fringes of
equal width Fringes of
unequal width
Fringes of
unequal width
Angular fringe width
D > 4f
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Distance Between Virtual Sources: Displacement method
and
But
D>4f
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Distance Between Virtual Sources: Displacement method
Now the fringe width is given by
and wavelength
Eyepiece is moved horizontally to determine the fringe width.
Suppose 20 bright fringes cross the field of view, when the
eyepiece moves through a distance L, then
O
O
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Distance Between Virtual Sources: Deviation method
For small angles (1)
From right angle triangle S1EO’ and equation (1)
O’
Hence,
If base angles are different, then
15B11PH111 ODD2020 23 Physics-1
Fringe Displacement
Determine condition of net path difference
Case 1:
Case 2:
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Fringes with White Light
When white light is used the center fringe at O is white since all
waves will constructively interfere here while the fringes on the
on wavelength of light.
For green light
For red light
White light is used to determine shift of fringe pattern, and thickness of the material
placed in the path of interfering beam.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 25 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1Content to be covered
❑Principle of optical reversibility
❖Phase change at reflection
❖Stokes’ law
❑Interference by division of amplitude
❑Thin films Interference
❖Path difference (Cosine Law)
❖Some case study
Lecture #3
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
Principle of optical reversibility
In the absence of any absorption, a light ray that is reflected or
refracted will retrace its original path if its direction is reversed.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
a → amplitude of incident ray
r1 → reflection coefficient
t1 → transmission coefficient
ar1 → amplitude of reflected ray
at1 → amplitude of refracted ray r1, r2 → reflection coefficients
t1, t2 → transmission coefficients
n1, n2 → refractive index of two media
According to principle of optical reversibility the two rays of amplitudes ar12 and
at1t2 must combine to give the incident ray of figure 1. Optical Reversibility
The two rays of amplitudes at1r1 and at1r2 must cancel each other.
Stokes’ relation
….(1
)
So, Stokes’ relation
….(2
)
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1 ❑Eq.(2) represents that the coefficient of reflection from the
surface of a denser
medium is equal in magnitude to the coefficient of reflection from the surface of a
rarer medium but opposite in sign.
❑Intensity of reflected light is the same for a ray incident from either side of the
boundary.
❑Eq.(2) does not give any information as to which of the two reflection gives the phase
change.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 4
where ai, ar, and at are the
amplitudes of the incident beam,
reflected beam, and transmitted
beam, respectively.
amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted beams are related to
that of the incident beam through the following relations: Reflection and Transmission coefficients
One can observe that when µ2>µ1 amplitude ar is
negative, showing that when a reflection occurs at a
reflection and transmission coefficients are given by:
If r’ and t’ are the reflection and transmission coefficients
when light is incident on a medium of refractive index µ1 then
1
2
Interference by Division of Amplitude
Suppose a light wave is incident on a half silvered mirror or simply a sheet of glass,
a part of the wave is transmitted and part reflected. Both the transmitted and
reflected waves have lower amplitudes than the original one. It can be said
figuratively that the amplitude has been split.
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Colors of soap film
Anti-reflecting thin films
Colours of oil film on water
If plane wave falls on a thin film then the wave
reflected from the upper surface interferes with
the wave reflected from the lower surface. For thin-film optics:
❖Interference by thin films
❖Newton’s Ring
❖Michelson’s Interferometer
❖Febry Perot’s Interferometer
Interference In Thin Films
a ar1at1r2t2 From Stokes relation
For next wave, amplitude is
amplitude of all other waves
would be very-very small. Thus, under above condition, Interference in
the thin film would essentially be two beam
interference. But if the reflectivity is large,
one obtains a multiple beam interference.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 6 Physics-1
Multiple Beam Interference In Thin Films
So, the resultant amplitude of rays reflected from the bottom surface of thin film
(2,3,4, … )is equal in magnitude of the amplitude of ray 1 but out of phase with it. as per principle of
reversibility
&
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Interference In Thin Film of Uniform thickness ‘t’ Reflection
The optical path difference between AT
and CQ
COSINE LAW
change
No phase change
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from the surface of optically denser medium. Interference In Thin Films
The net path difference will be
for destructive interference
So condition for maxima will be
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1 ❑Here, interference pattern will not be perfect because
intensities AT and CQ will
not be the same and their amplitude are different.
❑Amplitude depends on amount of light reflected and transmitted through the
films.
❑Intensity never vanishes completely and perfectly dark fringes will not be
observed. But, for multiple reflection intensity of minima will be zero.
for constructive interference
for destructive interference
0,1,2,3 …. Interference In Thin Film of Uniform thickness ‘t’ Transmission
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
General conditions for constructive and destructive interference are,
respectively,
Thus conditions for constructive and destructive interference would be, respectively,
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❑When a thin film is illuminated by a point source then, for different incident
rays, different pairs of interfering rays are obtained along widely different
angles. All these pairs can't be received by the eye. The rays only from a
small portion of the film can enter the eye. Hence the entire film can't be
seen by the eye placed in a fixed position. Need of Extended source
❑When the film is illuminated by an extended source, the rays from different
points of the source are reflected from different parts of the film so as to
enter the eye placed in a fixed position. Hence one can see the entire film
simultaneously.
An extended source is
necessary to enable
the eye to see a large
area of the film
simultaneously.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1Content to be covered
❑Colours in thin films
❑Anti-reflection films
❑Wedge shaped films Lecture #4
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
Colors in thin films
■The incident light is split up by reflection at the top and bottom of the film. The
split rays are in a position to interfere and interference of these rays is
responsible for colors.
■Since the interference condition is a function of thickness of the film, the
wavelength and the angle of refraction, different colors are observed at different
positions of the eye.
■It should be noted here that the conditions for maxima and minima in
transmitted light are opposite to that of reflected light. Hence, the colors that are
absent in reflected light will be present in transmitted light . The colors observed
in transmitted light and reflected light are complimentary.
■An excessively thin film appears black in reflected system when illuminated with
an extended source of white light.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
Non-reflecting Films
Figure shows a comparison between a
glasses lens without anti-reflective
coating (top) and a lens with
anti-reflective coating (bottom). Note the
reflection of the photographer in the top
lens and the tinted reflection in the
bottom.
The loss of energy due to reflection is one
major reason of clarity reduction, meaning
hereby, reduction in the intensity of the images
since less light is transmitted through the
lenses.
When films are coated on surface of lens, the reflectivity of these surfaces is
appreciably reduced . Example CaF2, MgF2
No light is destroyed by non reflecting film, but there is redistribution means
decrease in reflection results an increase in transmission.
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Non-reflecting Films
One of the important application of the thin film interference phenomenon lies
in reducing the reflectivity of lens surfaces.
Now we will use the thin film interference phenomenon in reducing the
reflectivity of lens surfaces. We all know that in many optical instruments such
as telescope, there are many interfaces, and the loss of intensity due to
reflections can be severe. For example, for near normal incidence, the
reflectivity of the crown glass surface in air is 4%.
non-reflecting film. The refractive index of the film should be less than that of
lens. The film thickness should be such that
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
Non-reflecting Films
coated on glass, then waves reflected from the upper surface of the film interfere
destructively with the waves reflected from the lower surface of the film, leading to
destructive interference. Such films are known as a non or anti-reflecting films with
refractive index µf is such that µa< µf < µg.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1
µg > µf > µa
Non-reflecting Films
Amplitude of ray 1:
Amplitude of ray 2: For complete destructive interference
ray 1 and 2 must have the same
amplitude, i.e.
~1
This equation gives the estimate of refractive index of film which
then
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Interference In Wedge Shaped Films
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between the rays PQ and EH is
According to the Snell’s law,
Interference In Wedge Shaped Films
■ Constructive interference
■ Destructive interference
For monochromatic light beam incident on a wedge shaped
due to varying thickness of the film . At a particular point,
thickness is constant. So we get a bright or dark fringe at that
point due to constant path difference.
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■Fringe at Apex is Dark
■Straight and parallel fringes
Locus of points having same
thickness lie along lines
parallel to the contact edge
■Equidistant fringes
■Localized fringes
Fringes formed close to the top surface of wedge.
■Fringes of equal thickness
Interference In Wedge Shaped Films
Determination of Wedge Angle
Using microscopes the positions of dark fringes at two distant
Thickness of the wedge t1 at Q, t2 at R
For dark fringes at Q
Interference In Wedge Shaped Films
The two glass surfaces are in contact at one end and separated at
the other end by a thin wire. If the sodium light is incident normally,
20 interference fringes are observed between these edges. What is
the thickness of the wire?
Explain what happens to the fringe width (i) if wedge angle is
decreased and (ii) oil is introduced between surfaces of the glass
plates in a wedge shaped films. Interference In Wedge Shaped Films
Interference In Wedge Shaped Films
■Fringes of equal thickness
■Fringe at the apex is dark.
■Fringes are straight, parallel and equidistant.
■Fringes are localized
■Fringes formed will be parallel to the edge OO’.
■bright and dark fringes of different orders will be
observed at different thickness of the film. A A’
B B’
O O’
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Content to be covered
❑Newton’s Ring (with reflected light)
❖Ring radii
❖Relation between film thickness and ring radius
❑Applications of Newton’s Ring experiment
❖Wavelength determination
❖Refractive index determination
❖Optical flatness of a glass plate
❑Case study (displacement of lens) Lecture #5
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
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Newton’s Ring
When a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed with
its convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate, an air film is
formed between the lower surface of lens and the upper surface of
the plate.
If monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally on this film, a system of
alternate bright and dark concentric
Newton’s rings are formed as a result of
interference between the light waves
reflected from the upper and lower
surface of air film. Thickness of air film is zero at point of contact.
Plano-convex lens
Glass plate air film
Interference occurs between the light
reflected from the lower surface of
plano-convex lens and the upper surface of
the glass plate.
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Newton’s Ring with reflected light
air film From reflected light
(i) For bright rings:
Incidence, r is very small and hence
cos r ≈1
….
(ii) For dark rings:
From transmitted light
(i) For bright rings:
(ii) For dark rings:
Since the convex side of the lens is a spherical
surface, thickness of the air film will be constant
over a circle (whose centre will be at O ) and we
will obtain concentric dark and bright rings.
Each ring will be locus of all such points where
thickness is same. Why do you get circular rings in
Newton’s ring experiment? O
in Newton's rings for transmitted rays, the
central ring will be bright.
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Newton’s Ring with reflected light
O
R
AB
R>> tn then
Now the condition for
bright rings from Reflection
….
similarly for dark rings:
Thus center would be dark of the fringe
pattern and alternately dark and bright rings
will be produced.
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Newton’s Ring with reflected light
Although the diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural
numbers, but the diameter of the ring does not increase in the same proportion as the
order of the ring. Hence, the rings get closer and closer as the order of rings i.e. ‘ n’
increases .
3, …… ..
The spacing between second
and third dark rings is smaller
than the spacing between the
first and second one.
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Newton’s rings : Wavelength determination
Diameter of the nth dark ring ( rn) is given by
Similarly for ( n+m)th dark band :
Radius of curvature can be accurately measured with the help of a spherometer and
therefore by measuring the diameter of dark or bright ring one can experimentally
determine the wavelength.
The slope of the straight
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Newton’s Ring : Refractive index determination
Liquid of refractive index µ
Diameter of the dark rings
First, perform the experiment in air
Now, repeat the experiment in liquid for near normal incidence and µg > µ
The path difference for dark rings will be given by but
….(1
)
….(2
)
now take the difference between (1) and (2)
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Newton’s Ring between two curved surfaces
ACBD
OP
Q
L rnair film R1
R2
The condition for bright rings for air film
….
The condition for dark rings for air film
….
•Convex and concave surfaces
•Effective air film thickness decreases
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Newton’s Ring between two curved surfaces
A
CB
DOP
QL
rnair film
R2R1
The condition for bright rings for air film
….
The condition for dark rings for air film
….
•Both convex surfaces
•Effective air film thickness increases
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Determination of optical flatness of a glass plate
Consider a glass surface placed on another surface whose flatness is known. If a
monochromatic light beam is allowed to fall on this combination and the reflected light
is viewed by a microscope, then, in general, dark and bright rings will be seen.
Consequently, by measuring the distance between consecutive dark and bright rings,
one can calculate the optical flatness of a glass surface. For bright rings:
…. For dark rings:
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Newton’s Ring: Can we make centre bright in reflected rays?
If the monochromatic source is replaced by the white light few
colored rings are seen around dark centre later illumination is
seen in the field of view..
However, if we put a red filter in front of the eye, the fringe
pattern (corresponding to the red color) will suddenly appear. If
we replace the red filter by a green filter in front of the eye, the
fringe pattern corresponding to the green color will appear.
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Consider the formation of Newton’s rings by monochromatic light. Assume the point of
contact to be perfect. Now slowly raise the lens vertically above the plate. As the lens
moves gradually away from the plate, how ring pattern will change. Newton’s Ring : Vertical shifting
of lens (Case1)
Since the point of contact is perfect ,
the central spot will be dark, the first
corresponding to the central spot
spot at the center we will now have a
bright spot.
then the first dark ring collapses to the
center and the central spot will be dark.
Thus, as the lens is moved upward, the rings collapse to the center.
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Consider the formation of Newton’s rings when two closely spaced wavelengths are
will be the effect of the presence of these two wavelengths as the lens is gradually moved
away from the plate? Newton’s Ring : Vertical shifting of lens (Case2)
We will first assume that the lens is in
contact with the plane glass plate. Since
the two wavelengths are very close, the
respectively .
Thus the rings almost
exactly superpose on each
other.
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Newton’s Ring : Vertical shifting of lens (Case2)
For large values of n, the two ring patterns may produce uniform illumination. The bright ring
Thus the contrast will be zero, and
no fringe pattern will be visible.
Now if we slowly raise the convex lens in
the upward direction and let t0 be such
that it satisfies Eq. (1) :
….(1
)
microscope, we will not be able to see any ring pattern.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 14 Physics-1
Newton’s Ring : Vertical shifting of lens (Case2)
….(1
)
In this way if we continue to move the lens upward, the fringe system will reappear
every time the lens is moved up by a distance
15B11PH111 ODD2020 15 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Michelson interferometer
❖Schematic and Working principle
❖Circular fringes and their radii
❖Role of Compensating Plate
❑Applications of Michelson interferometer
❖Wavelength determination
❖Refractive index determination
❖Thickness of a transparent plate
❖Distinction between two neighbouring spectral lines Lecture #6
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Michelson interferometer
Interferometer produces interference fringes by splitting a beam of
monochromatic light so that one beam strikes a fixed mirror and the other a
movable mirror. When the reflected beams are brought back together, an
interference pattern results.
Michelson designed an interferometer to obtain interference fringes of various
shapes which have a number of applications in optics. He was awarded the 1907
Nobel Prize in Physics for his “optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic
and metrological investigations”.
It can be used
[Link] determine the wavelength of light.
[Link] determine the refractive index and thickness of a glass plate.
[Link] determine the difference in wavelength between two neighboring spectral
lines.
(643.84 nm)
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Michelson interferometer : Schematic
It has two plane mirrors and a
glass plate G1. The plane mirrors
are mounted vertically on two
arms at right angles to each other.
The mirror M1 can be moved with
the help of screws. The plate G1 is
inclined at 450 with M1 and M2.
The surface of G1 towards M2 is
partially silvered (or glass plate).
1. monochromatic source
2. a detector
3. two mirrors
4. one semitransparent mirror (beam splitter)
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Michelson interferometer : Working Principle
❑The form of fringes depends on
the inclination of M1 and M2.
❑Let M’2 be the image of M2
formed by reflection at
semi-silvered surface of G1
❑The interference fringes may be
regarded to be formed by light
reflected from the surfaces of
M1 and M’2.
❑Thus the arrangement is equivalent to air film enclosed between the reflecting
surfaces M1 and M’2.
O
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Equivalent optical set-up of Michelson Interferometer
❑The real mirror M2 is replaced by its virtual image M'2 formed by reflection in G1.
❑If M1 and M2 are exactly perpendicular to each other and G1 is inclined at 450 to them,
then M1 and M'2 are exactly parallel to each other.
❑To the observer, the two rays will appear to be originating from the virtual images (S1 &
S2). These virtual sources are coherent sources.
❑The rays coming from these virtual images are parallel to each other because M1 is parallel
to M'2.
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fixvariable
Formation of Fringes
The positions of minimum and maximum intensity in the interference pattern is given by
Minima Maxima
If the beam splitter is just a simple glass plate , the beam reflected from mirror M2 will
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Circular Fringes
For dark rings:
occur are given by:
So, as d decreases the fringes will appear to collapse at the centre.
The highest order fringe appears
at the centre (i.e. corresponding
If, d slightly decreases (let from 0.025 cm to 0.024999 cm ) then
less closely spaced.
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Circular Fringes
When M2 is exactly perpendicular to M1, the film M1 M’2 is of uniform thickness and we
obtain circular fringes localized at infinity .
✔also known as Haidinger fringes
✔fringes localized at infinity
✔fringes of equal inclination
✔They can be observed by introducing a converging lens between the film and observation
plane with focus of the lens lying in observation plane.
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……… .
(1)
Here, p be the number index of a ring starting from the center having angular
Radius of Circular Fringe
If D is the separation between the glass plate G1 and the
Hence,
n0 will be 40,000. At a fixed value of d, successive dark rings will by given by
……… .
(2)The angular position of pth ring is determined by
rp
D
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Role of Compensating Plate
❑To compensate this, a compensating glass plate G2 made of same material and dimension
as G1 is placed in the path of beam #3. This results in an extra optical path 2µt in the path of
beam#3 also, which compensates for the additional path difference suffered by beam #2.
Any small inequalities in the optical paths can be removed by rotating the plate G2 (varying
the optical path through the thickness of the glass plate. Beam #2 traverse the glass plate G1 thrice
whereas beam #3
traverse it only once. Hence, the earlier beam travels an
additional 2µt (µ: refractive index of glass plate G1 for the
wavelength of light used and t is the physical distance
travelled by the ray through the plate). This extra path
difference between the two interfering beams is a fixed
quantity. This path difference is of great concern for white
light due to dispersion.
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Applications 1: Determination of wavelength
Let m fringes (bright or dark) collapse to the centre as the mirror M2 moves by
a distance d0.
initially for d …..(1)
after changing d by d0 …..(2)
after subtraction
Example: If by moving M2 through 2.9 x 10-2 cm, 1000 fringes collapses then
cm
This method was used by Michelson for the standardization of the meter. He had found that
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2. Determination of refractive index or thickness of a plate
Insert the given plate in the path of one of the interfering beams which introduces an
The fringes are therefore shifted. The movable
mirror is now moved till the fringes are
brought back to their initial position. If this
displacement is x then
µ,t
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3. Difference between two neighboring spectral lines
and for bright fringes
which gives maximum visibility.
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Newton’s Ring Michelson’s Interferometer
Circular fringes because of
locus of equal thickness of
filmCircular fringes because of
equal inclination of light of
film incidence
Newton’s ring have
minimum order at the centre Michelson’s interferometer
have maximum order at the
fix variable
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Localized Fringes
When the mirrors M1 and M2 are not perfectly perpendicular to each other and are
inclined at an angle, then the two virtual sources (S1 & S2) formed in them are also be
inclined to each other. The space between them is like a wedge shaped film that results
in formation of fringes of equal thickness. The two interfering rays are now no longer
parallel but appear to diverge from a point P' behind the mirror M1. The eye must be
focused on or near the rear side of M1 to see these fringes clearly, and therefore these
fringes are referred to as localized fringes.
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Localized Fringes
❑For small angles of inclination between the two mirrors and for small path difference d,
these fringes are practically straight because locus of all point having same thickness of the
wedge is a straight line parallel to the edge of the film.
❑For larger values of d, the variation of angle of incidence from extended source also
affects the path difference, & hence the fringes are slightly curved.
❑When the path difference between the centers of the mirrors is zero, the M1 and M'2
intersect and the fringes are exactly straight.
❑When M2 is not perpendicular to M1, the air film between the M1 and M’2 is wedge
shaped. As d increases, the fringes start to become curved and are convex towards the thin
edge of the wedge.
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White-light Fringes
❑If in the last case, monochromatic light
is replaced by white light and if
thickness of the film is small (distance
between M1 and M2’), a few curved and
colored localized fringes are obtained.
❑The fringe of zero thickness will be
perfect straight and perfect achromatic.
❑For large thickness of the air film,
uniform illumination is obtained.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 17 Physics-1
Summary
❑Michelson Interferometer is a very precise instrument based on the division of
amplitude class of Interference.
❑Light from an extended source is split along two arms of the interferometer
using two highly reflecting mirrors and a 50% polished beam splitter, and is
recombined to form interference pattern.
❑The interference patterns so produced is very sensitive to micron-level optical
path difference between two arms of the interferometer and hence this
equipment can be used as a precise measuring tool.
❑Different types of interference fringes (fringes of equal inclination, fringes of
equal width etc.) can be obtained under different settings of the interferometer,
and can be used for specific measuring applications .
15B11PH111 ODD2020 18 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Diffraction
❑Classification of diffraction
❑Superposition of N vibrations Lecture #7
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Diffraction
Diffraction of the light occurs when a light wave passes very close to the edge of an
object or through a tiny opening, such as a slit or aperture.
bA
B
Screen According to geometrical
optics region AB of screen
to be illuminated and
remaining portion will be
dark.
If observation are made carefully and width of the slit is not very large with respect to
wavelength then the light intensity in the region AB is not uniform and there is also some
intensity inside the geometrical shadow. This spreading out of a wave when it passes
through a narrow opening is known as diffraction pattern.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
Diffraction
Wide-gap: slight diffraction Narrow-gap: enormous diffraction
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Particle theory does not explain this
phenomena . On the basis of Huygen’s principle,
which state that all the points along a wave-front
acts as they were a point source. So light coming
out through the narrow opening will not act as
rays rather than as a point source. Hence, they
emerges out in all directions instead of just
passing through slit as rays.
Diffraction of Particles and Waves
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Definition of Diffraction
Bending of light round the corner of an obstacle or spreading out into the region of
geometrical shadow when it passes through a narrow opening is known as the
phenomenon of diffraction and the resulting distribution of light intensity on the screen
is called diffraction pattern.
without diffraction
with diffraction The spreading out of a
wave when it passes
through a narrow opening
is known as diffraction
pattern.
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Fresnel diffraction
The source of light and the
screen are at finite distance
from the diffracting
aperture. Types of Diffraction
Wavelength of light must be comparable to the size of an obstacle.
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Wavelength of light must be comparable to the size of an obstacle Fraunhofer diffraction
The source and the screen are at infinite
distance from the aperture (Using convex
lens) Types of Diffraction
Source Screen Aperture
The source is kept on the focal plane of
Ist convex lens and the screen is also kept on
the focal plane of other convex lens.
Incident & diffracted rays are parallel.
Both incident and diffracted waves may be
considered to be plane wave.
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Resultant of Simple Harmonic Waves of Equal
Amplitude, Periods and Increasing Phases
Let a be the amplitude of each vibration and φ the common
phase difference between successive vibrations.
To find the amplitude and initial phase of the resultant
vibration, we construct the polygon of amplitude OA, AB,
BC …… ..P , each equal to a. The closing side OP represent the
resultant vibration.
Resolving the amplitude parallel and perpendicular to OA
Phases increasing in arithmetic progressions
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Now using relation
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Similarly, we get
Now squaring and adding eqns (3) & (4)
Now suppose n is very large and amplitude a &
Now, dividing eq. (4) by eq. (3), we get
If we have large number of vibration as cos( ωt), cos( ωt- φ),
cos( ωt-2 φ), …………
cos[ ωt-(n-1) φ]; then resultant vibration will be
Resultant intensity at P which is proportional to the square of the resultant amplitude R
is given by:
Resultant wave will be given by
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Single slit diffraction
❖Expression for resultant intensity
❖Position of maxima (Central and Secondary)
❖Position of minima
❖Intensity at secondary maxima
❖Spread of central diffraction maximum
Lecture #8
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Single Slit Diffraction
Thus phase difference
Imagine AB divided into n (very
large ) number of equal parts,
where, each part is source of
secondary wavelets.
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A2
A3
An
Single Slit Diffraction
The phase difference between any two
successive parts of slit AB would be
Thus if disturbance at point P due to point A1 is a cos ωt
then from point A2: a cos ( ωt - φ); from point A3: a cos
( ωt - 2 φ); from point AN: a cos ( ωt – (N-1) φ)
Thus, resultant disturbance at point P would be
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1
A
1A
2A
3
A
n
where
Let
Single Slit Diffraction
where
Let
But for value of n,
Therefore
Thus resultant intensity at P
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Position Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
The resultant amplitude is given by
This is the location of central maxima.
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Minima Position Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
Re-consider the equation
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Position Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
Let us consider the condition for minima
Position of first minima would be
Position of second minima would be
Further
since
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1
Position Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
Secondary Maxima
Apply the method of
finding maxima and
minima
of primary mth minima,
15B11PH111 ODD2020 8 Physics-1
Position Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
Thus, the position of secondary maxima is given by the equation:
Note: The other roots can be obtained by determining the points of intersections of the
From the graph, other roots which satisfy the
equation are
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1
Position Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
Thus, directions of secondary maxima are
approximately:
So, secondary maxima lie at
first, second, third etc.... Intensity Calculations
Intensity of diffraction pattern is given as,
The intensity of secondary maxima
(first secondary
Thus Intensity of first secondary maxima ( I1) is
4.6% of principal maxima ( I0).
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
Similarly, for intensity of second secondary maxima
let us substitute, Intensity Of Maxima And Minima In Single
Slit Diffraction
Thus Intensity of second secondary maxima ( I2) is 1.6% of principal maxima ( I0).
I3 is 0.83% of I0.
One can similarly calculate I3, I4, I5, …. From the above values of intensities, it is obvious
that intensity of secondary maxima decreases as the order increases.
Ratio of Principal maximum to secondary maxima:
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1
Spread of central diffraction maximum
where, y is the linear half
width of the central maxima
and f is the focal length of
the lens.
Hence, the width of central
Maxima is given by
Direction of first minima is given by
If the lens is very near to the slit,
then L ≈ f.
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Diffraction pattern from a single slit:
Angular positions of maxima and minima
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Single Slit Fraunhofer diffraction:
Effect of slit width
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Narrower slits diffract more than wider ones
The longer wavelength is diffracted
more that the shorter one. Single Slit Diffraction
Slits farther : Maxima closer
Slits closer : Maxima farther
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Single Slit Diffraction vs Double slit Interference
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Content to be covered
❑Double slit diffraction
❖Expression for resultant intensity
❖Position of maxima (Central and Secondary)
❖Position of minima
❖Intensity at secondary maxima
❖Spread of central diffraction maximum
Lecture #9
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction
Again, like single slit case, let us
assume that slits consist of a large
number of equally spaced point
sources and each of these points act
as a source of secondary wavelets
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Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction
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Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction
The intensity distribution will be of the form
Represents
diffraction
Pattern produced by
single slit of width [Link] interference
pattern produced by
two point sources
separated by distance d.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1 If y1 and y2 are the displacements produced by
sources S1 and S2.
Then resultant displacement at point P on the screen
Amplitude of the
resultant wave
Same as the second
term appearing in the
expression of resultant
intensity for double
slit diffraction Thus, intensity of the resultant wave would be
where
Similarity with YDSE
Position for Minima and Maxima
15B11PH111 ODD2020 6 Physics-1 The expression of resultant intensity for double slit diffraction
is given by
or
Now corresponding angular locations of these various diffraction minima's would be given by
and
Position for Minima and Maxima
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1 Secondary diffraction maxima will
occur when
occur when
Now again consider interference maxima, we have
From above expression, we can find out angular position of interference
maxima ( values). Alternatively,
φ → The intensity pattern is in effect
a combination of both the
single-slit diffraction pattern
and the double slit interference
pattern.
The amplitude of the diffraction
pattern modulates the
interference pattern.
In other words, the diffraction pattern acts like
an envelope containing the interference pattern.
The image above is taken from the central
maximum area of a display.
In other words, the diffraction pattern acts like
an envelope containing the interference pattern.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1 Intensity pattern
Double slit of width d each Due to double slit interference
Due to double slit diffraction
FRAUNHOFER DOUBLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
1
1
Missing Orders In Double Slit Diffraction
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1 Interference maxima positions are given by
The positions of diffraction minima due to each slit are given by
simultaneously satisfied, then we have
the even order interference maxima will coincide
with 1st, 2nd, 3rd, order diffraction minima due to
single slit. Therefore three interference maxima will
fall within central maxima.
As the slit separation d increases the number of interference maxima appearing in the
region of central diffraction maxima increases.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 13 Physics-1 Missing Orders In Double Slit Diffraction
DIFFRACTION FROM N
NUMBER OF SLITS
(DIFFRACTION GRATING)
Content to be covered
❑N-slits diffraction
❖Expression for resultant intensity
❖Position of maxima (Central and Secondary)
❖Position of minima
❖Intensity at secondary maxima
❖Spread of central diffraction maximum
❑Diffraction Grating
❖Dispersive power of diffraction grating
Lecture #10
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
Diffraction from
N number of slits
(Diffraction Grating)
A plane diffraction grating is an arrangement of a large number of
close, parallel, straight, transparent and equidistant slits, each of
equal width ‘ b’ , with neighboring slits being separated by an opaque
region of width ‘ a’.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1
A plane diffraction grating is an arrangement of a large number of close, parallel,
straight, transparent and equidistant slits, each of equal width ‘b’ , with neighboring
slits being separated by an opaque region of width ‘a’.
A1
A2A1’bB
B1
Single
slit
Let single slit consists of n number of point sources than Resultant amplitude
(at P) produced by ‘n’ source A, A1, A2, ……..?
A
1A
2A1’bB
B
1B
All n waves emerging from secondary wavelets have same amplitudes and
this phase difference with its successive wave
Resultant of ‘ n’ simple harmonic waves of equal Amplitude,
Periods and Phases increasing in arithmetic progressions
φ2φ3φ(n-1
)φ
O ABCDEP
aRResolving the amplitude parallel
and perpendicular to OA
Similarly
Squaring and adding equation (3) &(4)
Dividing (4) by (3)
we have
represents the intensity distribution
produced by a single slit. Represents the interference pattern
produced by N equally spaced point
sources.
Resultant intensity distribution of grating spectra
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
MAXIMA (Principal Maxima)
For I to be maximum
Intensity of diffraction pattern is given as
These maxima are known as principal maxima and ‘m’ is
the order of principal maxima. Thus
-
O
Intensity of the principal maxima
General equation of intensity is given as:
Thus intensity of principal maxima is given as
MINIMA
The intensity will be zero when either
Recall, the intensity of diffraction pattern is given as
or
Where n can have the all integer
values except 0, N, 2N, 3N……
Which is condition for 1st order principal maxima. Similar is
Further, between two minima there would be maxima known as secondary
maxima . The number of secondary maxima would be [Link] we may say that there are N-1
equally spaced minima between zero order
and first order principal maxima or between two consecutives principal maxima.
maxima, secondary maxima and principal maxima in central
maxima
Principal maxima
Minima
SECONDARY MAXIMA
To find out position of secondary maxima, let us again
differentiate
[Link] is given as
Again using graphical method one can derive condition for
secondary maxima.
From the triangle
Intensity of secondary diffraction maxima from N slits
Given that
1
Or,
Therefore the intensity of secondary maxima will be
But intensity of principal maxima is given as
Therefore,
Conclusion: Larger the number of slits, smaller the intensity of
secondary maxima.
secondary maxima are not visible in the diffraction pattern.
WIDTH OF A PRINCIPAL MAXIMA
Angular width of a principal maxima is equal to the angular
separation between first two minima on either side of the
principal maxima.
(mN+1)th order minima
mth order principal maxima
(mN-1)th order minima
Slit
Screen WIDTH OF A PRINCIPAL MAXIMA
But,Thus,
and
Therefore,
Width of a Principal Maxima
For the diffraction through N slits, mth
order principal maximum occurs at
Further, the minima occur at the angles given by
diffraction corresponding to the first minimum on either
side of the principal maximum, then
……(1)
……(2)
On simplifying, we will get
order principal maxima.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 29 Physics-1
Width of a Principal Maxima
Angular width of a principal maxima is equal to the angular separation between first two
minima on either side of the principal maxima.
Position Intensity 3 slit diffraction
2nd order minima
4th order minima
1st principal
maxima
no. of slits
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Overlapping Orders in Diffraction Grating
5th order of principal maxima of 4000A0 will coincide with 4th order principal maxima of
5000A0 wavelength.
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Highest Possible Order of Principal Maximum
Here m is the highest order for principal maximum visible. If m is not an integer,
then the highest possible order is given by the integer lower than m.
i.e. first order spectrum will be absent.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 32 Physics-1
Diffraction Grating
Like the double slit arrangement but with a much greater
number of slits, or rulings, Sometimes as many as several 1000
per millimeter.
Light passed through the grating forms narrow interference
fringes that can be analyzed to determine the wavelength
As the number of rulings increases beyond 2 the intensity plot
changes from that of a double slit pattern to one with very
narrow maxima (called lines)surrounded by relatively wide
dark regions.
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Diffraction Grating (N-slits)
Condition for principal maxima:
m are called order numbers.
b
Typically ,there are 15000 lines
in 2.54 cm in the laboratory
grating.
Thus only two orders are possible in
grating for 6000Å wavelength.
From grating equation, by knowing the
angle of diffraction, one can determine
wavelength of different colors.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 34 Physics-1
Dispersive Power of a Grating
difference in angle of diffraction is directly
proportional to the difference in
spectrum is known as normal spectrum )
of the spectrum. Dispersive power:
• higher for higher order maxima
• higher for small grating element or
large N
• more for small wave length in the
same order maxima
Grating Equation:
on differentiating
The angular dispersion defined as the angular
separation per unit wavelength.
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Linear Dispersive Power
plane of a lens of focal length f, then
15B11PH111 ODD2020 36 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Polarization
❖What is polarization?
❖Plane of Vibration and Plane of Polarization
❑Production of polarized light
❖By reflection
❖By refraction
Lecture #11
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Why Polarization ???
After the study of interference and diffraction, we know that light
behaves as wave. So light is a form of wave motion. But a
question still remains that what type of wave is this?
Longitudinal?
Transverse?
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Polarized light will not be
transmitted through a
polarized film whose axis
is perpendicular to the
polarization direction.
Polarization
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Plane of Vibration and Plane of Polarization
•The plane containing the direction of propagation of light but no
vibration is called plane of polarization .
•The plane containing the direction of propagation of light as well as
vibrations called plane of vibration .
•Both, plane of polarization and plane of vibration are perpendicular
to each other .
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
Polarization
Plane polarized wave
Light is an electromagnetic wave and transverse in nature. Light is polarized when its
electric fields oscillate in a
single plane, rather than in
any direction perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. If the plane of vibration is changed in a random manner in very short
interval of time, then
such a wave is known as un-polarized wave. Natural light or ordinary light is un-polarized in
nature.
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Plane polarized light with vibrations parallel to the plane of paper · · · · Un-polarized & Polarized
light
Plane polarized light with vibration perpendicular to the plane of paper Un-polarized beam
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Polarized light
The process of transforming un-polarized light into polarized
light is known as polarization . Polarization
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Suppose light is propagating in z-direction,
Mathematically a plane polarized light can be
represented as:
ZX
Y Mathematical Representation of Plane polarized Light
or
Polarized light consists of waves which are
vibrating in one direction only.
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Polarizer & Analyzer
Conclusion: Light is a transverse wave This means that if initially un-polarized light passes through
crossed polarizer,
no light will get through the second one. Consider an un-polarized light wave is passing through
crossed polarizers.
Polarizer 1
(Vertical) Polarizer 2
(Horizontal)
Incident Beam
(Un-polarized)
Vertically
Polarized
Light Wave
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1
1. By Reflection: Brewster’s Law
2. By Refraction: Malus’ Law
3. By Selective Absorption: Dichroic material
4. By Double Refraction:
■Nicol Prism
■Wave Plates Production of Polarized Light
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
•In 1881, Brewster on the basis of his experimental observations discovered that when
un-polarized light is incident at polarizing angle on the dielectric medium the reflected
light is completely plane polarized having vibration perpendicular to the plane of
incidence . The polarizing angle is different for different reflecting surfaces.
the medium that is
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1
Show that
As per Snell’s law:
Therefore
Polarization by Reflection: Brewster’s Law
Here, reflected light has polarization vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
Reflected and transmitted rays are at right angles to each other.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 13 Physics-1
Use of Polaroid
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When light passes through a polarizer, only the component parallel to the
polarization axis is transmitted. If the incoming light is plane polarized, the outgoing
intensity is:
Intensity of plane polarized
wave is reduced by polarizer Law of Malus
15B11PH111 ODD2020 15 Physics-1
where
I is intensity of transmitted light.
I0 is intensity of incident light.
light and direction of polarizer.
•Un-polarized light have E-field vibration
in all directions.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 16 Physics-1
Two Consecutive Polarizer
15B11PH111 ODD2020 17 Physics-1
When un-polarized light
falls on two crossed
Polaroids (axes at 90°),
no light passes through.
What happens if a third
Polaroid, with axis at
45° to each of the other
two, is placed between
them? Three Consecutive Polarizer
15B11PH111 ODD2020 18 Physics-1
An un-polarized light passes through a vertically placed polarizer having
horizontal polarization axis. Subsequently it passes through a polarizer with
its pass axis at 900 with respect to vertical and two polarizers having their
polarization axes at an angle 300 and 600 with vertical, respectively. What will
be the intensity of the emergent light?
An un-polarized light passes through a vertically placed polarizer having
horizontal polarization axis. Subsequently, it passes through a polarizer with
its pass axis at 900 with respect to vertical followed by two polarizers having
their polarization axes at an angle 300 and 00 with vertical, respectively.
Calculate the intensity of the emergent light. Also, discuss the case when the
last two polarizers are interchanged. Problem
15B11PH111 ODD2020 19 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Production of polarized light
❖By double refraction
❖By selective absorption
❑Birefringent Materials
❑Nicole Prism
Lecture #12
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Double Refraction
❖ Many transparent solids are optically isotropic , meaning that the index of
refraction is equal in all directions through out the crystalline lattice. Examples
of isotropic solids are glass, table salt (sodium chloride, many polymers, and a
wide variety of both organic and inorganic compounds.
❖ Anisotropic crystals , on the other hand, have crystallographically distinct axes
and interact with light in a manner that is dependent upon the orientation of
the crystalline lattice with respect to the incident light .
■When light enters along the optical axis of anisotropic crystals, it acts in a
manner similar to interaction with isotropic crystals and passes through at
a single velocity .
■However, when light enters along any non-equivalent axis , it is refracted
into two rays each polarized with the vibration directions oriented at right
angles to one another, and traveling at different velocities. This
phenomenon is termed " double“ or "bi“ refraction and is seen to a greater
or lesser degree in all anisotropic crystals.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1 Separation of light by a Birefringent Materials
both rays travel
with different velocities
in different directions both rays travel
with different velocities
in same direction both rays travel
with same velocity
in same direction
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1 Theory of Double Refraction in Uniaxial Crystal
To explain the double refraction following experimental observation must be
considered:
❑Ordinary rays (o-ray) have same velocity in all direction.
❑Extraordinary rays (e-ray) have different velocity in different direction inside the
crystal.
❑along optic axis velocities of the two rays are same.
❑both rays travel along the same path but with different velocities in a direction
perpendicular to the optic axis.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1 Huygen’s Theory Of Double Refraction In Uniaxial Crystal
According to wave theory of light (using the principle of secondary wavelets):
When the light wave strikes the surface of a doubly refracting crystal, every point
of the crystal distributed by the incident wavefront becomes the source of two
secondary wavelets, ordinary and extraordinary, which spreads out into the
crystal.
For O-ray the velocity is same in all directions,
the wavefront is spherical.
For E-ray the velocity is different in different
directions the wavefront is an ellipsoid.
In quartz the velocity of O ray is
greater than velocity of E ray i.e. vo
less than velocity of E ray i.e. vo <
In negative uniaxial crystals the sphere lies inside the ellipsoid, while in positive
v0<ve
Calcite, Tourmaline
-ve crystal
15B11PH111 ODD2020 6 Physics-1
Quartz
+ve crystal v0>ve
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1 Different Cases
[Link] axis parallel to the refracting surface and in the plane of
incidence
[Link] axis perpendicular to the refracting surface but lying in the
plane of incidence
[Link] axis in the plane of incidence and inclined to the refracting
surface
[Link] axis parallel to the refracting surface but perpendicular to
the plane of incidence
Each of above case further divided for NORMAL incidence and
OBLIQUE incidence.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 8 Physics-1 Optic axis parallel to the refracting surface and in the plane
of incidence
Normal Incidence
Oblique Incidence
Polarization by Double Refraction
The “double bending” of the beam transmitted through
crystals is called Double refraction or Birefringence.
Crystals displaying this property are called Birefringent
crystals. Example: Calcite, Tourmaline, Quartz, etc.
When an un-polarized light enters into an anisotropic crystal,
it splits into two beams, each of them being characterized by a
certain state of polarization. If we could eliminate one of the
beams by some method, then we would obtained a polarized
light.
Methods of eliminating one of the beam.
1. Selective absorption - Dichroism.
Example: Tourmaline crystal (Dichroic Crystal)
2. Total Internal Reflection
Example: Nicole prism
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1
A number of crystalline materials absorb more light in one incident plane than
another, so that light progressing through the material become more and more
polarized as they proceed. This anisotropy in absorption is called dichroism .
There are several naturally occurring dichroic materials, and the commercial
material polaroid also polarizes light by selective absorption technique.
Tourmaline crystal is a dichroic material Polarization by Absorption: Dichroic materials
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
Principal planes:
The plane containing optic axis. Many such planes can be drawn.
Principal Section:
The principal plane normal to a pair of opposite refracting faces is
called as principal section for that pair of faces. Since there are six
faces, therefore there are three principal sections in a crystal
corresponding to each pair of opposite faces. Principal Planes and Principal Sections
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1
··· · · ····
irero1020
780E-ray
O-ray
Principal section
Optic axis When un-polarized light passes through a uniaxial crystal it splits up into two refracted
rays.
•Ordinary wave(O-wave)
•Extra-ordinary wave(E-wave)
Here re > ro
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 13 Physics-1 Calcite
Canada
balsam
Here, O-ray will have total
internal reflection because
refracting calcite crystal By total internal reflection . Nicol Prism
Canada Balsam is a clear
and transparent substance
with an index of refraction
•Along optic axis velocities of the two rays are same as the double
refraction is absent. Sum of the intensities of the two rays equal to the
intensity of the incident ray.
•Both rays travel along the same path but with different velocities in a
direction perpendicular to the optic axis.
•The ordinary ray is plane polarized in the principal plane of the crystal,
i.e. vibrations of the ordinary wave are perpendicular to the principal plane
of the crystal.
•Extraordinary ray is also plane polarized in the plane at right angle to the
principal plane, means it’s vibrations are in the principal plane.
•Difference between the refractive indices for O-ray and E-ray is known as
15B11PH111 ODD2020 14 Physics-1
Let a beam of plane polarized light is incident normally on a calcite plate
cut with its optic axis parallel to its face (x-axis).
It will split into two orthogonal waves known as O-ray and E-ray , having
perpendicular electric fields . The electric field associated with the two
orthogonal waves (O-ray and E-ray in Anisotropic crystal) can be written
asSuperposition of Two Plane Polarized Waves
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
φ is the phase difference introduced between the two orthogonal component of the incident
ray.
Superposition of Two Plane Polarized Waves
Squaring both side This is the equation of the ellipse tilted at an
axis of the ellipse with the x axis.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
Nature of emerging light will depend on two
factors:
• phase difference between two
components
• initial amplitude of two components
incident light.
This is a equation of simple ellipse. Thus
emergent light is elliptically polarized.
This is a equation of circle. Thus emergent light would be circularly polarized.
This is again a straight line showing that emergent light will be a linearly polarized light.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1
Note: +ve values of for RCP or REP and -ve for LCP or LEP
Problems
Q.1: Explain the state of polarizations in the following equations:
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1
If and
Now squaring and adding Ex and Ey
15B11PH111 ODD2020 6 Physics-1
left Circularly Polarized
Light (LCP) Circularly Polarized Light
Right Circularly
Polarized Light (RCP)
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1
Circularly Polarized Light
wave as defined from the point of view of the
source. It would be considered
if defined from the point of view of the
receiver.
polarized wave as defined from the point of
view of the source. It would be considered
defined from the point of view of the receiver.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 8 Physics-1
If the vector of the electric field
(measured at a fixed point of
space) oscillates along a straight
line then the waves are
called plane-polarized or linearly
polarized waves. Plane-polarized waves
3D view Front view
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1
Superposition of plane-polarized waves
The following animation presents the superposition of two waves that have the same
amplitude and wavelength, are polarized in two perpendicular planes and oscillate in the
same phase . Oscillating in the same phase means that the two waves reach their peaks
and cross the zero line in the same moments. The superposing components are
visualized with red and green color, respectively. The wave resulting from the
superposition is shown in light blue.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
Superposition of plane-polarized waves
When two waves plane-polarized in two
perpendicular planes meet out of phase
then the wave resulting from the
superposition of the two waves will no
longer be plane-polarized. The following
animation presents the superposition of
two waves that have the same
amplitude and wavelength and are
polarized in two perpendicular planes
but there is a phase difference of 900
between them. A phase difference of
90° means that when one wave is at its
peak then the other one is just crossing
the zero line.
At any fixed point in space that is in the line of the propagation of this wave, the electric field
vector rotates in a circle while its length remains constant . Such waves are called circularly
polarized
waves .
As the 3D picture shows, a circularly polarized wave can be visualized with a spiral line; the wave
propagates as a function describing a spiral instead of one describing a sine curve.
In this picture, the electric field vector rotates clockwise when looked at from the direction of
propagation.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1
Circularly Polarized Light
When the intersecting planes are looked at from the front then the following
images are seen:
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1
Superposition of Circularly Polarized Waves
What will happen when a left circularly polarized wave and a right circularly polarized wave are
added?
Let's assume that the two light beams have equal amplitudes and wavelengths.
The result of superposing two circularly polarized waves is a plane-polarized wave .
Any linearly polarized light wave can be obtained as a superposition of a left
circularly polarized and a right circularly polarized light wave, whose amplitudes are
identical .
15B11PH111 ODD2020 13 Physics-1
Optic axis parallel to refracting surface, maximum bi-refrengence
with same path. Hence it can be used to make wave retarders.
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·
··
·
·
·
··
·
·
·
·
·P KAL K’ B L’ Q
O, E O, E O1O2
E1 E2
Retarders
This is an optical device, which introduces a phase difference
between extra-ordinary and ordinary rays.
These are in the form of plates of doubly refracting crystal cut in
such a way that optic axis is parallel to the refracting surfaces .
15B11PH111 ODD2020 15 Physics-1
vibration of plane
polarized ray with the optic axis From the figure, y- and z-components of the vibration
would be
Inside the crystal the two components can be written as:
Thus phase difference at the emerging surface would be,
or path difference between O- and E-ray at the refracting surface would be
Retarders
15B11PH111 ODD2020 16 Physics-1
Quarter-Wave Plate
If doubly refracting crystal is having thickness d such that path difference between E-ray and
The crystal is known as
Quarter-Wave Plate
(QWP).
15B11PH111 ODD2020 17 Physics-1
Use: QWP Convert plane
polarized (PP) to circular
polarized (CP) or
elliptically polarized (EP)
Thus, if a plane polarized light is incident normally on the refracting face of the QWP,
resultant of these two vibrations will be elliptically polarized one. Quarter-Wave Plate
15B11PH111 ODD2020 18 Physics-1
Half-Wave Plate
If doubly refracting crystal is having thickness t such that path difference between E-ray and
circular polarized (RCP) or
right elliptically polarized
(REP) light to LCP or LEP and
vice verse.
Linearly polarized light entering a half-wave plate can
be resolved into two waves, parallel ( shown as green )
and perpendicular ( blue ) to the optical axis of the
wave plate. In the plate, the parallel wave propagates
slightly slower than the perpendicular one. At the far
side of the plate, the parallel wave is exactly half of a
wavelength delayed relative to the perpendicular
wave, and the resulting combination ( red) is
orthogonally polarized compared to its entrance
state.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 19 Physics-1
Production of Polarized Light
2. Circularly polarized light:
If quarter plate is at 450, light passing through it will be circularly polarized.
No variation of intensity with the rotation of analyzer. Un-polarized light Plane polarized
light Vibration makes 450 angle
with optic axis. QWP
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1. Plane polarized light:
3. Elliptically polarized light: Production of Polarized Light
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15B11PH111 ODD2020 22 Physics-1
Analysis of Polarized Light
1. Plane polarized light:
··· ·
·
·Polarizer
Analyzer Intensity
maximum
····
·
·Polarizer
Intensity
Zero
15B11PH111 ODD2020 23 Physics-1
Analysis of Polarized Light
2. Circularly polarized light:
No variation
in intensity
If variation in intensity is like plane polarized
light original light is circularly polarized.
Otherwise, original light is un-polarized.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 24 Physics-1
Analyzer
Analyzer It may be a unpolarized or
may be a circularly polarized light
Analysis of Polarized Light
3. Elliptically polarized light:
Variation of intensity
from a maximum to
minimum
If variation in intensity is like plane polarized
light original light is elliptically polarized.
Otherwise, original light is un-polarized.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 25 Physics-1 It may be a partially polarized or
may be an elliptically polarized
light
Analyzer
Analyzer
Given beam of light
Incident on a rotating Nicol prism
Variation in intensity with
minimum non zero
Conclusion: Given light is either
elliptically polarized or partially
polarized Variation in intensity with
minimum zero
Conclusion: Given light is
plane polarized No Variation in intensity
Conclusion : Given light is either
circularly polarized or
un-polarized.
Incident on a QWP with optic axis || to the
pass axis of the analyzing Nicol at the
position of maximum intensity and then
examined by rotating Nicol prism Incident on a QWP in any position and
then examined by rotating Nicol prism
Variation in intensity
with minimum zero
Conclusion: elliptically
polarized Variation in intensity
with minimum non zero
Conclusion: partially
polarized Variation in intensity
with minimum zero
Conclusion: circularly
polarized No Variation in
intensity
Conclusion :
un-polarized. Scheme of analysis of a given beam of light
15B11PH111 ODD2020 26 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Optical activity
❖Biot’s law for optical rotation
❖Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation
❖Optically active substances
❖Specific Rotation
Lecture #14
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Optical Activity
When a beam of plane polarized light propagates through certain substances
or crystals, the plane of polarization of the emergent beam rotated through a
certain angle. This phenomenon of rotation of the plane of vibration is called
rotatory polarization and this property of the crystal (substance) is called
optical activity or optical rotation and substances which show this property are
called optically active substances.
There are two type of optically active substances:
❖ Right handed or dextrorotatory: Rotate the plane of
vibration in the clockwise direction as seen by the
observer facing the source. Examples: Sodium chlorate,
cane sugar.
❖ Left handed or laevorotatory: Rotate the plane of
vibration in the anti-clockwise direction as seen by an
observer facing the source. Examples: Fruit sugar,
turpentine.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1 Angle of rotation depends on the length and concentration of
the medium.
Other Examples: Quartz crystals (Some may be dextro- and some laevo-rotatory. Calcite is
optically inactive.
In the presence of quartz, I is not zero.
Conclusion: Plane polarized light is rotated because of quartz.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1 Note: In quartz, when optic axis is perpendicular to refracting
face then only we can observe the rotation of PP light other
wise it will act just as a wave plate which produce phase
difference in e-ray and o-ray.
Along optic axis ordinary ray and extra ordinary rays travel
along the Same direction and with same velocity means
refractive index of ordinary ray and extraordinary ray are
same.
Applications:
1. To find the percentage of optically active material present in the solution.
2. The amount of sugar present in blood of a diabetic patient determined by
measuring the angle of rotation of the plane of polarization.
Biot’s law for optical rotation
* The angle of rotation is inversely proportional to the square of the wavelength for
a given length of the optically active substance.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1 Fresnel’s theory y of optical rotation by an optically active
substance is based on the fact
that any plane polarized light may be considered as resultant of two circularly polarized
vibrations rotating in opposite direction with the same velocity or frequency.
Linearly Polarized Light
This explanation was based on the following assumptions:
A plane polarized light falling on an optically active medium along its optic axis splits up
into two circularly polarized vibrations of equal amplitudes and rotating in opposite
directions–one clockwise and other anticlockwise.
Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation
❑In an optically inactive substance, these components travel with the same speed.
Hence, at emergence, produce a plane polarized light without any rotation of the
plane of polarization.
❑In an optically active crystal like quartz, two circular components travel with
different speeds so that relative phase difference is developed between them on
transmission through the crystal.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 6 Physics-1 ❖ In dextrorotatory substance vR>vL and in laevorotatory
substance vL>vR.
❖ On emergence from an optically active substance the two circular vibrations recombine to
give plane polarized light whose plane of vibration has been rotated w.r.t that of incident light
through a certain angle depends on the phase diff between the two vibrations.
Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1
Optic axes is perpendicular to refracting face.
Mathematical Treatment
RCP propagating in z-direction:
LCP propagating in z-direction:
where
Now
Similarly
Now take
15B11PH111 ODD2020 8 Physics-1
Mathematical Treatment
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1 Let a beam of plane polarized light be incident normally on a
quartz plate.
Let the vibrations in the incident polarized beam be
where 2 a is the amplitude of the incident vibrations.
The above equation can be rewritten as:
Therefore eq (1) and (2) may be considered to be the resultant of the two circular vibrations
represented by equations
and
components of anticlockwise circular motion in two mutually ⊥
directions
For optically inactive substance- the angular speeds of L and R
components are same.
components of clockwise circular motion in two mutually ⊥
directions
Plane of vibration is along original direction.
Mathematical Treatment
For optically active substances
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1 According to Fresnel the two circular components are
propagated through the plate with
different angular speeds. So when they emerges out of the crystal there is a phase difference
Suppose clockwise component advances in front of the other.
&
The resultant displacement along the two axes are
These resultant vibrations along the x and y axes are ⊥ to each other and are in the
same period and phase. From Eq. (5) and (6), we get,
That is with the vibrations of incident light.
For optically active substances
t : the thickness of the quartz plate,
Thus, the path difference between the two components is given by
Corresponding phase difference will be
Angle of rotation of plane of vibration will be
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1 In case of left handed optically substances vL >vR
In case of right handed optically substances vL <vR
Specific Rotation
The rotation (in degrees) produced by a path of one decimeter length of a substance
of unit density for a given wavelength at a given temperature is defined as specific
rotation.
The molecular rotation is given by the specific rotation and
molecular weight. (If l is in cm)
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❑Polarimeter
❖Half-Shade Device
❖Laurent's Half Shade Polarimeter
❖Bi-Quartz Polarimeter
Lecture #15
Resources to be consulted
❑OPTICS by Ajay Ghatak
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
A device designed for accurate measurement of angle of rotation
of plane of vibration of a plane polarized light by an optically active
medium is said to be a polarimeter.
[Link]'s Half shade polarimeter
[Link]-quartz polarimeter Polarimeter
Laurent's Half Shade Polarimeter
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
where l is length
of tube T1 in dm. Half-Shade Device (H)
It consists of a circular
plate with one half made
up of quartz (HWP) cut
parallel to the optic axis
which is parallel to YY’
Other half is made up of
glass, so that glass absorbs
same light as quartz plate
does.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1
pass axis of
analyzer pass axis of
analyzer
Bi-Quartz Polarimeter
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1 Left handed Quartz Right handed Quartz
Y
Y’
Transmission
axis of analyzer
Transmission
axis of analyzer
Transmission
axis of analyzer •White light source is used.
•Two semicircular quartz plates (Right
and Left handed) with Optic axis
perpendicular to crystal surface
(rotation effect only).
•HWP for yellow light.
•Incident PPL vibrates always along the
YY’. (YY’ is tint of passes.)
•If Analyzer axes is ⊥ to YY’ then
yellow color will be disappeared and
we can get resultant of Red and Blue
colour (Reddish violet color) as min
intensity.
•If Analyzer pass axis is || to YY’ then
same colour of equal intensity will be
observed on both side.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1 Bi-quartz is much more sensitive and accurate
then Half shade polarimeter. But having major
drawback for color blind person.
Content to be covered
❖Frames of Reference
❑Inertial Frames
❖Michelson-Morley Experiment
❖Basic Postulates
❖The Galilean Transformation Lecture #16
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Experiment at rest Experiment in moving frame
Ball rises and ends up in the thrower’s hand. Ball in the air the same
length of time.
Experiment looks different from ground observer (parabolic
trajectory, speed as a function of time) and observer on the truck.
However, they both agree on the validity of Newton’s laws. 15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 2
❑In order to describe the motion of moving bodies, we
need to state where the object is at a given time .
❑But to state where an object is, we need to measure its
position relative to something else.
❖We need a reference point from where to define the
position of objects. Once we have chosen such a point,
which is called the origin , we can specify the position
(x,y,z), and distance from the origin .
❖We also need a clock so that we can specify at what time
‘t’ the object was at the given position. Frames of Reference
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 3
•Newton 's first law, the law of inertia , states that
if an object is at rest it will stay at rest if no force is acting on it, and if an object
is moving it will keep on moving at constant velocity if no force is acting on it.
•A frame , in which this law is correct, is called an inertial frame .
•in which no accelerations are observed in the absence of external forces.
•If one such inertial frame exists, then an infinite number of other inertial
frames exist since any frame that is moving at a constant relative velocity to
the first inertial frame is also an inertial frame .
•The frames in which the law of inertia does NOT hold are those that are
accelerating with respect to inertial frames . They are called non-inertial
frames . Inertial Frames
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 4
The equation relating the coordinates of an
object in two inertial frames (whose relative
velocity is negligible in comparison to the speed
of light ) are called Galilean transformation .The Galilean Transformation
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 5
•If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference frame, then they are
also valid in another reference frame moving at a uniform
velocity relative to the first system.
•This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of relativity or
Galilean invariance .
xzy
OS
x’z’y’
O
’S’Newtonian Principle of Relativity
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 6
•For a point P:
x’z’y’S’
•Axes are parallel (for simplicity)
•S and S’ are INERTIAL FRAMES The Galilean Transformation
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 7
For a point P
■In system S: P( x, y, z, t)
■In system S’: P( x’, y’, z’, t’)x
SP
S’
x-
axi
s
S’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction with respect to S
Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant , i.e., the
same for all inertial observers . The Galilean Transformation
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 8
Step 1. Replace with
Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with
“unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed.”
The Inverse Relations
x
SP
S’
x-
axi
s
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 9
Problem-1
An observer in the laboratory sees two particles colliding at
the laboratory frame?
x’z’y’S’
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 10
•Experiment designed to measure small changes in the
speed of light was performed by Albert A. Michelson
and Edward W. Morley.
•Used an optical instrument called an interferometer
that Michelson invented.
•Device was to detect the presence of the ether.
•Outcome of the experiment was negative, thus
contradicting the ether hypothesis.
•A.A. Michelson and E.W. Morley, American Journal of
Science, 134 – 333, 1887) Michelson-Morley Experiment
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 11
Michelson-Morley Experiment
Is the speed of light the same in all directions in a moving
reference frame?
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 12
Michelson-Morley Experiment
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Michelson-Morley Experiment
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The negative result had two consequences.
1. The ether doesn’t exist and there is no such thing as “absolute
motion” relative to the ether.
All motion is relative to a specified frame of reference, not to a
universal one.
2. The speed of light is the same for all observers, which is not
true of waves that need a material medium in which to occur
(e.g. sound & water waves).
Michelson-Morley Experiment
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•The speed of light has been defined to be exactly:
•Light travels at this ultimate speed, as do any massless
particles.
•No entity that carries energy or information can
exceed this speed limit.
•No particle that does have a mass, can actually reach c.
•Electrons have been accelerated to at least 0.999 999
999 95 times the speed of light—still less than c. The Ultimate Speed
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This theory is divided into two parts.
[Link] theory: This theory deals with objects or
systems which are either moving at a constant speed or
at rest with respect to each other.
[Link] theory: Describes the relationship between
gravity and the geometrical structure. (not in syllabus)
The theory of relativity was developed by Einstein in1905. It
•deals with the absolute motion of the body through
space.
•deals with objects or observers moving relative to each
other. Theory of Relativity
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 17
2 Simple Postulates
•The laws of physics are the same in every
inertial frame of reference.
–The Principle of Relativity
the same in all inertial frames of reference,
and is independent of the motion of the
source.
–Invariance of the speed of light
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 18
The Speed of Light
If we apply Newtonian Mechanics to describe the propagation of
light, then two observers who are at two different reference frames,
will measure a different value for the speed of light if there is relative
However, that does not happen.
All observers measure the same
speed of light.
We need theory of relativity to
explain this!
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 19
Content to be covered
❖Constancy of the Speed of Light
❖Lorentz Transformation
❖Consequence of Relativity
❑Length Contraction
❑Time Dilation
✔Muon decay problem
✔Twin Paradox
Lecture #17,18
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
•Consider the fixed system S and the moving system S’.
S’ moving to the right along the x axis.
•According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in both systems and
the wave fronts observed in both systems must be spherical.
S S’ The Constancy of the Speed of Light
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 2
Spherical wavefronts in S:
Spherical wavefronts in S’:
S S’
There are a couple of extra terms
(-2xvt + v2t2) in the primed frame. Note that this cannot occur in Galilean transformations.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 3
The special set of linear transformations that:
preserve the constancy of the speed of light ( c)
between inertial observers; with the assumption
that the time is not an absolute quantity.
Therefore t ≠ t■
known as the Lorentz transformation equations The Lorentz Transformation
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The Lorentz Transformation: Derivation
proportionality which does not
depend upon either x or t but
be same in both the reference
frames as there is no difference
between S and S’ other than
the sign of v.
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The Lorentz Transformation: Derivation
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Lorentz Transformation
•Measurements of time and position depend upon the frame of reference of observer so that
two events which occur simultaneously in one frame at different places need not be
simultaneous in another.
•Lorentz transformation reduces to ordinary Galilean transformation when v<<c. 15B11PH111
ODD2020 Physics-1 7
Space and time are now linked, and the frame velocity cannot exceed c.
The complete Lorentz Transformation
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•The Major Consequences To This Theory
are:-
•Length Contraction
•Time Dilation
•Mass Expansion
Consequence of Relativity
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A
fast-movin
g plane at
different
speeds.
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A rod is lying along the x’ axis of the moving
frame S’. If an observer determines the
coordinates of its ends to be x’1 and x’2, then
Therefore, L0 is the actual length of the rod
(w.r.t .to O’) in a frame in which the rod is at
rest. According to Lorentz transformation,
length measured in S w.r.t. O will be the
Length Contraction
As ends of the rod is
measured at the same
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The length ( L0) of an object in motion with respect to an
observer ( in S Frame) appears to be shorter, this phenomenon is
known as Lorentz FitzGerald contraction or Length Contraction. Length Contraction
Faster means shorter
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Time Dilation
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Time Dilation
Assume a clock is placed at x’ in the moving frame S’. When an observer in S’
measures a time interval
The observer in S, will measure this interval as
Thus improper time will be longer
than proper time; called Time dilation.
Two measurements
of time t2’ & t1’ were
taken at same position. proper time
apparent time
or improper time
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Thus a stationary clock measures a longer time interval between events occurring in
a moving frame of reference – time dilation.
Thus if the time interval between two beats (tick) of the clock in
the proper frame S’ is 1 second, then this time interval will be
observed more than 1 second in the frame S i.e a moving clock
appears to go slow. Time Dilation
A moving clock ticks more
slowly than a clock at rest.
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~6.6×102 mMuon is created
Muon
speed 0.998c, so that they can cover only a
life time, and yet they are found in abundance
at sea level, i.e., at a depth of 10 km from the
upper atmosphere where they are produced.
How may this be explained on the basis of (i)
length contraction (ii) time dilation? Example of Time Dilation
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Muon is created
Muon
decays
Example of Time Dilation
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1. An observer in the laboratory sees two particles colliding at
the laboratory frame?
2. A particle with a proper life time of 1 µs moves through the
laboratory at 0.9c. What is its lifetime as measured by
Problem-2
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Twin Paradox
A longer life but it will not seem longer!
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Content to be covered
❖Velocity Addition
❖Relativity of Mass
❑Relation Between Mass and Energy
❑Relation Between Momentum and Energy
❖Massless Particle
Lecture #19,20
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
Let us consider, something is moving along X-axis relative to both S
(rest) and S’ with U and U’. While S’ frame is moving with velocity
v. An observer in S measures three component of velocity to be
•To an observer in S’ they are
•To an observer in S’ they are
ZXY
Z’ Y’
X’ S
S’ v U U’ Velocity Addition
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•By differentiating the Lorentz transform equations for x’, y’,
z’ and t’, we obtain
•Now we can write,
•This is relativistic velocity transformation equation. Its Inverse
transformation equation (v → -v) is
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•By applying the same technique we can obtain
transformation for Uy and Uz as
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•Let U`
reference frame S’ in the opposite direction of motion relative to
S, an observer in frame S will measure the velocity
ZXY
Z’ Y’
X’ S
S’ v c Example
Hence, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light beyond c and c is the
upper limit of velocity of any particle.
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According to Newtonian mechanics the mass of a
body is unaffected with change in velocity.
But space and time change……..
Therefore “mass” of a body is no longer be
unaffected. Relativity of Mass
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 6
Relativistic mass Mass at rest.
Rest mass is least
A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 1 kg that
move apart at speeds of 0.6c relative to the original body. Find the
mass of the original body. Ans.: 2.5kg.
Relativity of Mass
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Kinetic energy (T) of a moving body can be defined as the work
done in bringing it from rest to its state of motion. That is:
Where, F is the component of the applied force in the direction of
the displacement ds and s is the distance over which the force acts.
Using the relativistic form of the second law of motion.
Relation Between Mass and Energy
…..(1)
…..(2)
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Relation Between Mass and Energy
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Relation Between Mass and Energy
This equation states that the kinetic energy of a body is equal to the increase in its mass,
resulting from its relative motion, multiplied by the square of the speed of the light.
Therefore,
If we interpret mc2 as the total energy E of the body, it follows that, when the body is at
Limiting Case: When v << c
Limiting Case: When v → c K.E. tends to infinity. ⇒ to accelerate the particle to the
speed of light infinite amount of work would be needed
to be done . 15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 10
Relation Between Momentum and Energy
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If v<c, that is , p<moc2 , then
Neglecting higher order terms of binomial expansion, we get
☞ Limiting value of
Relativistic Kinetic Energy Relation Between Momentum and Energy
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Relativistic kinetic energy is
Expanding by Binomial theorem
This is expression for kinetic energy in non-relativistic case. Limiting Value of Relativistic Kinetic
Energy
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Massless Particle?
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A particle which has zero rest mass Massless Particle? Answer : Photon
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Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
A) Radiation
B) Light is made of particles. The need for a quantification
1) Black-body radiation (1860-1901)
2) Atomic Spectroscopy (1888-)
3) Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
C) Wave–particle duality
1) Compton Effect (1923).
2) Electron Diffraction Davisson and Germer (1925).
3) Young's Double Slit Experiment
D) Louis de Broglie relation for a photon from relativity
E) A new mathematical tool: Wave functions and operators
F) Measurable physical quantities and associated operators - Correspondence
principle
G) The Schrödinger Equation (1926)
H) The Uncertainty principle
Macroscopic world:
A basket of cherries
Many of them (identical)
We can see them and taste others
Taking one has negligible effect
Cherries are both red and good . Microscopic world:
A single cherry
Either, we look at it without eating, It is
red Or we eat it, it is good.
You can not try both at the same time
The cherry could not be good and red at
the same time .
•Classical mechanics (Newton's mechanics) and Maxwell's
equations (electromagnetics theory) can explain macroscopic
phenomena such as motion of billiard balls or rockets.
•Quantum mechanics is used to explain microscopic
phenomena such as photon-atom scattering and flow of the
electrons in a semiconductor.
•QUANTUM MECHANICS is a collection of postulates based on
a huge number of experimental observations.
•The differences between the classical and quantum
mechanics can be understood by examining both
–The classical point of view
–The quantum point of view Basics of Quantum Mechanics
Why Quantum Physics?
•The motion of the macroscopic particles (heavy particles) can be observed
either directly or through the microscope. Classical mechanics can be applied
to explain their motion.
•On the other hand, to explain motion of the micro-particles (light particles)
like electrons, protons etc. classical mechanics fails.
•Max Planck proposed quantum theory in the beginning of 20th century. In
this theory, he proposed that emission of radiations from black body is not a
continuous emission but it emits radiations having discrete energy in packets
called “quanta of energy” i.e. integral value of hν.
•Einstein latter, applied it to interpret Photo electric Effect i.e. the emission
of electrons from metal surface Classical & Quantum Mechanics
•Here light is treated completely as an “object" like a particle. When, it hits a
metal, it interacts only with one electron. It may eject the electron or not
depending on the energy it has.
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
frequency vs Kinetic Energy graph should then be a straight line.
frequency"-the minimum frequency to achieve the effect. Einstein’s Theory
First detailed insights into how light interacts with matter-atoms,
molecules
-gives understanding to
✔why UV light can cause skin cancer ?
✔why high frequencies are ionizing?
✔It is also the beginning of understanding that
✔why light can cause chemical reactions or changes?
✔why chlorophyll can absorb light?
✔And so on … Applications of Light
Particle:
❖Mass, momentum, position, KE etc.
❖Satisfy Newton’s law of motion for mass ‘m‘
❖Response of motion after collision
Wave:
❖Wavelength, amplitude, frequency phase etc.
❖Wave like motion
❖Response of wave after scattering
Dual nature of light
An object with definite position in space shows particle like nature; where as, an
object with repeatedly periodic pattern specifies wave like motion. Wave particle duality
In physics and chemistry, wave–particle duality is the concept that all matter and energy
exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties. A central concept of quantum mechanics,
duality, addresses the inadequacy of classical concepts like "particle" and "wave" in fully
describing the behavior of small-scale objects. Various interpretations of quantum mechanics
attempt to explain this apparent paradox.
In graphite, there is an abundance of weakly coupled electrons ----
one can think of them as of “nearly free electrons” or with a good approximation, as of “free
electrons”. Compton Scattering
The photon passes
some part of its
energy to the electron,
and flies away with less
energy.
The energy has to
be Conserved , so the
remaining part
of the energy is the
kinetic energy of
the scattered or
recoiled electron.
The phenomenon of scattering of X-ray photon by an
electron in an elastic collision is called Compton effect
(1923).
❑ The scattering is due to inelastic collision of two particles i.e.
incident X – ray photon and electron (initially at rest).
❑ Conservation of Energy and Momentum has to be applied.
❑ The scattered photon has less energy than incident photon
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Linear Momentum
…..(1)
where
Conservation of momentum
In the direction of propagation:
In the direction perpendicular to direction of
propagation: …..(2)
…..(3)
Squaring and then adding Eq. (2) and (3)
…..(4)
Now squaring Eq. (1)
…..(5)
Now solving Eq. (4) and (5)
This Eq. was derived by A . H. Compton in the 1920 and the phenomenon it describes,
which he was the first to observe is known as Compton effect. It constitutes very strong
evidence in support of the quantum theory of radiation. where
…..(6)
which is 0.001% of the visible wavelength, so Compton scattering can not be observed
with visible light .
Known as
Compton wavelength
Now from Eq. (7) and (8)
Now again from Eq. (2) and (3)
Now from Eq. (6)
where
…..(7)
…..(8)
While photon can scattered in any direction. Compton Scattering : Relation between Scattering
angles
Now from Eq. (1)
where
K.E. ∝
Compton Scattering : K.E. of Recoil Electron
•The scattered radiation had smaller frequency
and longer wavelength) than the incident
beam.
•The change in wavelength depended on the
angle of scattering and not on the material.
•As the collision is elastic, energy and
momentum (relativistic) will be conserved
•These could only be explained by quantum
theory (existence of quantum particles). Compton’s Observations
Compton’s Observations
For visible light (400nm to
employs that for visible
spectrum, change in wavelength
by scattering is very-very small.
X-ray wavelength ~ 0.1 nm.
This effect is observed clearly
for lower wavelengths.
1. X-rays of wavelength 10.0 pm are scattered from a target. (a) Find the wavelength of
the X-rays scattered through 45°. (b) Find the maximum wavelength present in the
scattered X-rays. (c) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the recoil electrons.
Ans. 10.7 pm, 14.9 pm, 40.8 keV
2. A photon whose energy equals the rest energy of the electron undergoes a Compton
collision with an electron. If the electron moves off at an angle of 40° with the original
photon direction, what is the energy of the scattered photon? Ans. 335 keV Problems
Content to be covered
❖de-Broglie wave
❖Davission - Germer Experiment Lecture #22
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
de-Broglie wave
•de-Broglie wave is also called “ matter wave”.
•Wave: Any aspect of the behavior or property of a material
mathematical equations, describe a waves.
•By analogy, with the wave and particle behavior of light that had
already been established experimentally, the French physicist Louis
de-Broglie suggested (1924) that particles might have wave
properties in addition to particle properties.
•de-Broglie waves play an appreciable role, therefore, only in the
realm of subatomic particles or light particles.
A moving body behaves in certain ways as though it has a
wave nature
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 2
• As we see that light comes in discrete units (Photons) with particles
properties which is related to wave like properties having certain
frequency and wavelength.
• In 1924, physicist Louis de-Broglie introduced the hypothesis that all
material particle in motion possesses a wave character also. These
associated with the momentum p as below:
For a particle of momentum p and wave with frequency ν
where
If E be the K.E. of the material particle, then
de-Broglie wave
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 3
•Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated
with it.
•Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength
associated with it.
particle matter wave is associated.
•Whether the particle is charged or not, matter wave is
associated with it. This reveals that these waves are not
electromagnetic but a new kind of waves. Characteristics of de-Broglie wave
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 4
Find the de-Broglie wavelengths of (a) a 46 gm golf ball with a
de-Broglie wave
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 5
High voltage
Galvano
meter Nickel
Target
cathode Anode
filament G
S
c
GBased on the concept of wave
nature of matter fast moving
electrons behave like waves.
Hence accelerated electron beam
can be used for diffraction
studies in crystals Davission - Germer Experiment
•The electron gun G produces a fine beam of
electrons.
•It consists of a heated filament F, which emits
electrons due to thermo ionic emission.
•The accelerated electron beam of electrons are
incident on a nickel plate, called target.
•The target crystal can be rotated about an axis parallel to the direction of incident electron
beam.
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Davission - Germer Experiment
Experimental evidences for existence of de Broglie wave
Diffraction of
electron beam
takes place at
atomic level
In 1927 Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in USA
and G. P. Thomson in England independently
confirmed de Broglie’s hypothesis by demonstrating
that electron beams are diffracted when they are
scattered by the regular atomic arrays of crystals .
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Instead of a continuous variation of scattered electron intensity with angle, distinct maxima
and minima were observed whose positions depended upon the electron energy! Davission -
Germer Experiment
potential difference
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Now we use de-Broglie’s formula to find the expected wavelength of
the electrons. The electron kinetic energy of 54 eV is small compared with its rest
So the electron momentum mv is
Thus electron wavelength is given by
de-Broglie’s prediction.
The Davisson-Germer experiment thus directly verifies de-Broglie’s hypothesis
of the wave nature of moving bodies. Davission - Germer Experiment
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 9
de-Broglie Wave Velocity
Wave or Phase velocity : Let us suppose, velocity of de Broglie’s wave be vp, then
Since, the particle velocity ‘v’ is always less than ‘c’; therefore, from above equation, it
clear that “de Broglie’s wave velocity” vp should always be greater than ‘c’ (the speed of
light.
It indicates that de Broglie wave associated with particle is leaving particle for behind.
This is against the wave concept of particle and leading a discrepancy.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 10
Content to be covered
❖Wave Packets
❖Wave velocity and Group Velocity
❖Relation between phase velocity and group velocity Lecture #23
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 1 Physics-1
•Real waves are almost always combinations of multiple wavelengths
•Average these two expressions to get a new wave:
•This wave has two kinds of oscillations:
The oscillations at small scales and The “lumps” at large scales
Small scale
oscillations Large scale
oscillations
Addition of Two Waves
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The velocity of little oscillations governed by the first factor
•Leads to the same formula as before for phase velocity:
Small scale
oscillations Large scale
oscillations
The velocity of big oscillations governed by the second factor
•Leads to a formula for group velocity:
These need not be the same! Group Velocity
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More Waves
One wave
Two waves
Three waves
Five waves
Infinity waves •Two waves allow you to create
localized “lumps”
•Three waves allow you to start
separating these lumps
•More waves lets you get them
farther and farther apart
•Infinity waves allows you to make
the other lumps disappear to
infinity – you have one lump, or a
wave packet
•A single lump – a wave packet –
looks and acts a lot like a particle
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 4
A wave packet is said to be dispersive if different frequencies travel at different
speeds. •We can combine many waves to separate a “lump” from its neighbors
•With an infinite number of waves, we can make a wave packet
•Contains continuum of wave numbers k
•Resulting wave travels and mostly stays together, like a particle
Wave Packets
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 5
This discrepancy was overcome by considering that moving particle is associated
with a ‘ wave packet’ rather than a simple wave train.
A wave packet is
comprised of group of
waves slightly differing in
velocity and wavelengths
with phase and amplitude
such that they interfere
constructively and
destructively. The velocity
with which this wave
moves forward in the
medium is known as
Group Velocity Wave (Phase) and Group Velocity
The average velocity of the individual monochromatic
wave in the medium with which the wave packet is
connected is known as Wave or Phase velocity .
A group of waves need not have the same velocity as the waves themselves. If the velocities of the
waves are the same, the velocity with
which the wave group travels is the common phase velocity.
However, if the phase velocity varies with wavelength, the
different individual waves do not proceed together. This
situation is called dispersion . As a result the wave group has a
velocity different from the phase velocities of the waves
that make it up.
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Group Velocity
Compare to two wave formulas:
•Phase velocity formula is exactly the same, except we simply rename
the average values of k and ω as simply k and ω
•Group velocity now involves very closely spaced values of k (and ω),
and therefore we rewrite the differences as . . .
Theorem: Group velocity doesn’t
always equal phase velocity
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Wave nature:
Particle nature:
Group velocity is given by
From above, we have
and
Group Velocity
Thus de-Broglie’s wave group associated with a moving particle has the same velocity as
the moving particle. The wave velocity (vp) of the de-Broglie’s wave evidently has no simple
physical significance. 15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 8
Relation between phase velocity and group velocity
As we know
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 9
How to calculate them:
•You need the dispersion relation: the relationship
between ω and k, with only constants in the formula
•Example: light in vacuum has
with A a constant, what are the
phase and group velocity?
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 10
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 2
Content to be covered
❖Uncertainty Principle
❖Applications of Uncertainty Principle
❑Heisenberg Microscope
Lecture #24
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 3
exactly one value
•It can be approximated by giving the central
value
•And the uncertainty, the “standard
deviation” from that value
•The position of a wave packet is not exactly
one value
•It can be approximated by giving the
central value
•And the uncertainty, the “standard
deviation” from that value
These quantities are related:
The Classical Uncertainty Principle
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box of size L
•What is the uncertainty in its
•It is certainly bigger than 0 ? L
Guess of
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Know the Error of Thy Ways: Measurement Error →
• All measurements have some (limited) precision…no matter the instrument used
• Examples:
your watch)
• Is this a correct measure weight ?
– Correct (because of large error reported) but imprecise
– Correct weight is covered by the (large) error in observation
• Measurement errors are unavoidable since the measurement procedure is an experimental one.
• True value of an measurable quantity is an abstract concept.
Best estimate of length: 36 mm
Probable range: 35.5 to 36.5 mm
Best estimate of voltage: 5.3 V
Probable range: 5.1 to 5.4 V
Length Measurement Voltage (or time) Measurement
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15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 7
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
It is not possible to determine the Position and Linear
Momentum of a particle with unlimited precision
simultaneously.
If the measurement of the position of a particle is made with a
uncertainties (measurement errors) can never be smaller than
It is not possible to determine the Energy and Time of a
particle with unlimited precision simultaneously.
It is not possible to determine the Angular momentum and
Angular position of a particle with unlimited precision
simultaneously.
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Increasing levels of wavepacket localization, meaning the particle has
a more localized position.
In the limit ■ → 0, the particle's position
and momentum become known exactly.
This is equivalent to the classical particle. p is less p is more
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 9
Applications of Uncertainty Principle
Non existence of electron in the nucleus
Typical size (radius) of nucleus ≈ 10-14m
If this is the uncertainty in the electron’s momentum, then its energy would be more than
Thus: E ≥ 20MeV.
Thus, it must have energy more than 20 MeV, if it is to be inside the nucleus.
Experimentally, it is observed that if an electron, which is associated with
unstable atom never has energy more than a fraction of this energy. It
concludes that electron cannot be present within the nucleus.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 10
Assume that the electron is present in the nucleus of radius 10-14 m. for the
not be greater than 10-14 m. According to the uncertainty principle.
≥ 1.1×10-20 kg-ms-1
If this is the uncertainty in momentum of the electron then the momentum of
the electron must be at least of the order of its magnitude, that is, p ≅ 1.1×10-20
kg-ms-1.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 11
Suppose we have a particle, whose momentum is, initially, precisely known. For
From wave optics (Rayleigh Criterion)
y
From our diagram:
Heisenberg Microscope
Since this is a “thought experiment” we are free from any
practical constraints, and we can locate the particle as
precisely as we like by using radiation of shorter and
shorter wavelengths.
But what are the consequences of this?
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 12
Thus process MUST involve some transfer of momentum to the
particle…….
BUT there is an intrinsic uncertainty in the X-component of the
momentum of the scattered photon, since we only know that the photon
the same uncertainty in the momentum of the
observed particle…………… Heisenberg Microscope
In order to see the particle, a photon must scatter off it and enter the microscope.
Uncertainty in position of particle:
Uncertainty in momentum of particle:
uncertainty in the momentum of the particle !!!!!! Product of the uncertainties in position and
momentum given by:
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An illustration of Uncertainty Principle: Single slit diffraction
in the y component
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Double-slit Experiment Revisited
Incoming coherent beam
of particles (or light) Detecting screen
Schrödinger equation is linear : solution with both slits open is
Observation is nonlinear
Interference term
gives fringes Usual “particle”
part
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 15
Content to be covered
❖Wave function
❑Its physical interpretation
❑Its properties
❖Operators
❖Expectation values
❖Some problems Lecture #25,26
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
Matter Waves...Quantitative ; Wave Function
The wave associated with particles are mathematical constructs. It
does not describe the space –time variation of any measurable
quantity like displacement or any other characteristics present in the
medium.
The wave relates to the probabilities of observing
the particle at different space locations as a function of time. In
characteristics of a particle (particularly, de-Broglie wave).
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 2
•The probability P(r,t)dV to find a particle associated with the
wavefunction Ψ(r,t) within a small volume dV around a point in
space with coordinate r at some instant t is
–P(r,t) is the probability density
•For one-dimensional case
Wave function may be a complex quantity , but its mod square will
always be a positive quantity. Hence,
Physical interpretation of Wave function
Probability density
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 3
•The probability of finding a
particle somewhere in a volume V
of space is
–Since the probability to find particle
anywhere in space is 1,we have
condition of normalization
normalized wave function Physical interpretation of Wave function
For 1-Dimensional case , the probability of finding the particle in the arbitrary interval a ≤
x ≤ b is
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 4
following requirements:
■Ψ must be finite and single valued
■Ψ must be continuous and have a continuous first
derivative everywhere.
■Ψ must be normalized i.e. it means that Ψ & Ψ* must go
Once we know this wavefunction we know “everything” about the
system! Properties of wave function
(FINITE VALUE)
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Problems
Example 1 Example 2
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 6
Operators, Eigenfunctions and eigenvalues
An operator is an instruction; a symbol which tells us to perform one or more
mathematical operations on a function, say f (x). The essential point is that they act on a
function.
❖Operators act on everything to their right, unless the action is constrained by
brackets.
❖Addition and subtraction rules :
❖The product of two operators implies successive operation.
❖The product of two operator will result a third operator.
❖Two operator commute if they follow
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Physical Quantity(observable) → Operators
symbol ↔ actual operation
In quantum mechanics, there exists an operator corresponding to each dynamical
observable of classical physics. For examples: Some Operators in Quantum Mechanics
•These operators may be
represented by matrices.
•These operators satisfy Eigen
value equations of the form Position
Linear Momentum
Momentum in 3D
Total Energy
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
Total energy
(Hamiltonian
form)
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•Only average value of physical quantities can be determined
(can’t determine exact value of a quantity at a point)
•These average values are called Expectation Value.
❖These are values of physical quantities that quantum
mechanics predicts and which, from experimental point of
view, are averages of multiple measurements
•Example, [expected] position of the particle.
Expectation Value
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In general
Expectation Value for Momentum of a Free
Particle
For a free particle
()
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Problems
1. < x > for a particle in a box of length L where
2. < p > for a particle in a box of length L. Use same the wave function as in the above
problem.
elsewhere.
(b)Find the expectation value < x > of the particle’s position.
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Schrödinger's equation of Motion
In 1926, Schrödinger presented his famous wave equation as development of de-Broglie
ideas of the wave properties of matter. The Schrödinger's equation is the fundamental
equation of quantum mechanics in the same sense as the Newton’s second law of motion
of classical mechanics. It is the differential equation for the de Broglie waves associated
with particles and describes the motion of particles.
In terms of energy E and momentum p:
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 12
Schrödinger's equation of Motion
•Schrödinger developed the wave equation which can be solved to find the
wavefunction by translating the equation for energy of classical physics into
the language of waves
•For fixed energy, we obtain the time-independent Schrödinger equation,
which describes stationary states
•the energy of such states does not change with time
–V is a potential function representing the particle interaction with the
environment
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Schrödinger Wave Equation: Time Independent
Position and time dependent wave function can be described as below:
The above equation is know as time independent Schrödinger wave equation.
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Where Ψ(x,t) is called wave function. The
differential equation of matter wave in one
dimension is derived as above.
The above equation is called one-dimensional Schrödinger’s wave equation in one
dimension. In three dimension, the Schrödinger wave equation becomes
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Schrödinger Wave Equation: Time Dependent
Time independent Schrodinger wave
equation can be illustrated as below:
Substituting the value of Energy operator, we
may get:
The above equation is known as Time dependent
Schrödinger equation.
Here,
known as Hamiltonian
Operator
Hence,
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 16
Content to be covered
❖Particle in a 1-D Box
❑Wavefunction
❑Energy eigen values Lecture #27
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
Particle in a one dimensional Box
(infinite square well potential)
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•A particle is confined to a one-dimensional region of
space between two impenetrable walls separated
by distance L. This is a one- dimensional “box ”
•The particle is bouncing elastically back and forth
between the walls.
■As long as the particle is inside the box, the
potential energy does not depend on its
location. We can choose this energy value to
be zero
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 3•Since the walls are impenetrable, there is zero probability of
finding
0, for x < 0 and x > L
be expressed in the form
be expressed in the form
•We can re-write it as
Particle in a one dimensional Box
Particle in a 3-D Box
•Now consider a particle of mass m and total energy E is confined in three dimensional
box of x dimension length Lx, y direction Ly and z direction length Lz.
•The particle moves freely within these lengths, as potential is zero inside the box.
•This box is bounded by a large potential barrier.
•The particle is confined in 3 dimensional box, and restricted to outside by a very large
potential barriers.
Total
Energy: Total
Wave-function:
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 5The most general solution to this differential equation is given
by
where A and B are constants determined
by the properties of the wavefunction as well as boundary and normalization
conditions.
•Since the particle can not have infinite energy, it cannot exist outside the box.
discontinuities at the walls.
•sin(kx) and cos( kx) are finite and single-valued functions.
which means
that the particle is no where.
Particle in a one dimensional Box
Normalizing Ψ:
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Particle in a one dimensional Box
•A trapped particle cannot have an arbitrary energy, as a free particle can, but
•Each permitted energy is called ‘eigen value’ of the particle and constitute the
energy level of the system, and the integer ‘ n’ that specifies an energy level En,
eigen value is called eigen functions.
•A trapped particle cannot have zero energy.
>0, whereas the corresponding classical system would have a minimum energy
of zero.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 7Particle in a one dimensional Box
2
3
(a) The first two wavefunctions, (b) the corresponding
probability distributions, and (c) a representation of
the probability distribution in terms of the darkness
of shading.
Particle in a one dimensional Box
Note: Particle most likely to be found in
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 8
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 9Consider an electron is in the 10nm wide well with infinite
barriers. Assume that a photon is
absorbed, and the electron is transferred from the ground state to the second excited state.
What was the wavelengths of the photon? Problems
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 101. Probability to find particle in the right half of the well
Problems
2. An electron is confined to an one-dimensional
infinity potential well of width 0.2 nm. It is found that
when the energy of the particle is 230 eV, its
eigenfunction has 5 antinodes. Find the mass of the
particle and show that it can never have energy equal
3. A 10-g marble is in a box 10 cm across. Find its permitted energies.
4. Find the probability that a particle trapped in a box L wide can be found between 0.45L
and 0.55L for the ground and first excited states.
5. Find the expectation value x of the position of a particle trapped in a box L wide.
6. Calculate the energy difference between the ground state and the first excited state for
an electron in one dimensional rigid box of length 10 A0.
Content to be covered
❖Potential Barrier
❑Quantum Tunnelling
❑Tunnelling Probability
❑Numerical Problems Lecture #28
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 2Quantum Tunnelling
Penetration of particles through rectangular potential barrier
Potential Barrier: when a particle approaches a region in which
the entrance of the particle is opposed by some force, then the
region is said to form a barrier for the particle.
Tunnel effect: when a particle is able to cross a potential barrier
even when its energy is less than the barrier height, then this
phenomenon is called “tunnel effect’. It is purely quantum
mechanical phenomenon, never realizable classically.
tunnel effect.
Tunnel Diode, Scanning tunneling Microscope
when E >V0, there is a finite probability that the particle will be reflected back
from the barrier.
when E <V0, there is a finite probability for penetration through barrier.
Higher the barrier, and the thicker it is, the smaller the chance the particle can
penetrate it. If E is the energy of the particle then according to
Classical theory :
If E>V0 particle will always cross the barrier
If E <V0 Particle will always be reflected back,
it can never penetrate through the barrier.
But, according to Quantum Mechanics:
barrier Potential Barrier
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Potential Barrier
[Link] a quantum particle tunnel
through a barrier with its energy
less than the barrier energy?
[Link] will be the amplitude of the
transmitted wave as compared to
the incident wave?
3. What will be The transmission
probability (T)?
4. How does it depend on the
width of the barrier?
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Potential Barrier
Let us assume the wave particle of energy ‘E’ is
incident to the barrier with barrier height (i.e.
Barrier energy) ‘V’ less than E. There are three
possible regions, I, II and III. Region II refers to
(x≤0), the barrier region.
The Schrödinger wave equation for the region I
can be expressed as below:
For region I:
For region III: For region II:
region III. 15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 5
Now applying boundary conditions:
We well get
These four equations
may be solved to get
We know that Transmission Probability (T) is given by: Tunneling Probability
For low energies and wide barriers,
•As V0 >> E, k2→ HIGH
and thus T→ 0
Its means the bracket quantity varies
much less with E and Vo than the
exponential. The bracket quantity is
always of the order of 1, So reasonable
approximation of T . 15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 6
Tunneling Phenomena
A particle without the energy to pass over a potential barrier may still tunnel through it.
potential barriers, Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, Tunnel Diodes etc.
the nucleus modeled as a
square well
tunnel through the Coulomb
potential barrier.
• Tunneling rate is very
sensitive to small changes in
energy, accounting for the
wide range of decay times.
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energy 9MeV
Using 1021 attempts at the barrier per second, the number of successful attempts
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Calculate transmission probability from given data:
If barrier width is doubled
Thus, transmission probability is more sensitive to the width of the barrier than
to the particle energy here.
Example
Electrons with energies of 0.400 eV are incident on a barrier 3.00 eV high and 0.100 nm
wide. Find the approximate probability for these electrons to penetrate the barrier.
A beam of electrons is incident on a barrier 6.00 eV high and 0.200 nm wide. Find the
energy they should have if 1.00 percent of them are to get through the barrier.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 9
•Allows highly detailed images with
resolution comparable to the size of a
single atom
•A conducting probe with a sharp tip is
brought near the surface
•The electrons can “tunnel” across the
barrier of empty space
•By applying a voltage between the
surface and the tip, the electrons can be
made to tunnel preferentially from
surface to tip
•The tip samples the distribution of
electrons just above the surface
•The STM is very sensitive to the distance
between the surface and the tip Scanning Tunneling Microscope
Allows measurements of the height of surface features within 0.001 nm
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Comparison between infinite and finite potential well: Wavefunction
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Content to be covered
❖Linear Harmonic Oscillator
❑Wave function
❑Zero point energy
❖Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for
Harmonic Oscillator
❖Numerical problems Lecture #29
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
Linear Harmonic Oscillator (parabolic potential)
A simple harmonic oscillator is a particle
performing 1-D motion under restoring force
where k is force constant. The plot against x
is a parabola and we may describe the
particle as being in a “parabolic potential
well”.
If E → Total energy of the particle.
Classically :
• The velocity of the particle is maximum at the centre of path and drops to zero at
• Classically, the probability of finding the particle is minimum at the center and
maximum at the ends.
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Harmonic Oscillator
Now, the Schrödinger eq. can be written as
Polynomials.
Energy levels are given by:
is given by:
Wave function representations for the first
horizontal axis shows the position x. The
graphs are not normalized.
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which is the lowest value the energy of
the oscillator can have. This value is
called the zero-point energy because a
harmonic oscillator in equilibrium with
its surroundings would approach an
temperature approaches 0 K.
Zero-point energy Harmonic Oscillator
Hermite Polynomial
The recursion formula
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Write first two state of an Harmonic Oscillator
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 5
Potential wells and energy levels of (a) a hydrogen atom, (b) a particle in a box, and
(c) a harmonic oscillator. In each case the energy levels depend in a different way
on the quantum number n. Only for the harmonic oscillator are the levels equally
spaced.
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The relative probability of finding it in any
velocity over that interval. Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for Harmonic
Oscillator : finding the oscillator at different position
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 7
The classical probability is
strictly contained between the
vertical lines which represent
the classical limit.
The quantum probabilities do
extend into the classically
forbidden region, exponentially
decaying into that region Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for Harmonic
Oscillator : finding the oscillator at different position
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The fact that the overall picture
of probability of finding the
oscillator at a given value of x
converges for the quantum and
classical pictures is called the
correspondence principle.
The greater the quantum number, the closer
the quantum physics approaches classical
physics Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for Harmonic
Oscillator : finding the oscillator at different position
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Find the expectation value of <x> for the first two states of harmonic
oscillators. Problem
Wave functions for the first two state of a harmonic oscillator is given by
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15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 11
momentum, displacement from the equilibrium position is x and spring
constant is k. In classical physics, the minimum energy of the oscillator is
of x only and show that the minimum energy is actually
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 12
Content to be covered
❖Thermal radiation
❖Blackbody
❑Black body Radiation
❖Rayleigh-Jeans Law
❑Ultraviolet catastrophe
❖Wien's Law of Radiation Lecture #30
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
dy-spectrum_en.html
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
Thermal radiation: Characteristics
❑An object at any temperature emits radiation sometimes referred to as thermal
radiation. Characteristic of this radiation depends on the temperature and the
properties of the object.
❑At low temperatures, the wavelengths of thermal radiation are in the infrared
region, as the temperature increases the objects begins to glow red means enough
visible radiation is emitted so that object appears to glow.
❑As temperature increases, the thermal radiation it emits consists of a continuous
distribution of wavelengths from the infrared, visible and ultraviolet portions of the
spectrum.
❑From classical view point thermal radiation from accelerated charged particles in
the atoms near the surface of the object. The thermally agitated particles can have
a distribution of accelerations which accounts for the continuous spectrum of
radiation. This classical theory was inadequate.
❑The basic problem was in understanding the observed distribution of wavelengths
in the radiation emitted by a blackbody.
❑As the temperature increases, distinct behavior are observed. Peak of the
distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
1. White clothes are preferred in summer and dark colored in
winter.
2. Cooking utensils are blackened at the bottom and polished on
the upper surface.
3. Hot water pipes and radiators used in rooms are painted black so
that they can radiate maximum amount of heat to the room. The
same pipes outside the rooms are painted white so that they do
not lose heat to the surroundings.
4. Polished reflectors are used in electric heaters to reflect
maximum heat in the room.
Application of heat radiation
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A material is constantly exchanging heat with its
surrounding (to remain at a constant temperature):
❑It absorbs and emits radiations.
❑Problem: it can reflect incoming radiations, which
makes a theoretical description more difficult
(depends on the environment)
Blackbody (A perfect emitter and a perfect absorber of
radiation)
❑Incoming radiations is totally absorbed regardless of the
frequency and none is reflected.
❑Sun and Earth’s surfaces behave approximately as
blackbodies.
Blackbody (Need not appear to be black)
The light emitted by a black body is called black-body radiation.
Gustav Kirchhoff
Black body
A black body is an ideal body which allows the whole of the incident radiation to
pass into itself (without reflecting the energy ) and absorbs within itself this whole
incident radiation (without passing on the energy). This propety is valid for radiation
corresponding to all wavelengths and to all angels of incidence. Therefore, the black
body is an ideal absorber of incident radaition.
Black body radiation
curves showing peak
wavelengths at various
temperatures.
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Black body Radiation
•Continuous spectra
Examples-
•Star spectra are nearly Black body
•Radiation out of an oven or a blast furnace
•The Universe
•Anything which is "hot“ will absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation.
At room temperature, black bodies
emit IR light, but as the temperature
increases past a few hundred
degrees Celsius, black bodies start
to emit at visible wavelengths, from
red, through orange, yellow, and
white before ending up at blue,
beyond which the emission includes
increasing amounts of UV
Spectral energy
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Rayleigh and Jeans considered the radiation inside the black body
(cavity) to be a series of standing electromagnetic waves, on the
assumption that the em wave radiation spectrum emitted by a
black body continuously vary in wavelengths from zero to infinity.
The number of standing waves per unit volume (density of em
standing waves or allowed modes or density of states) are
This equation is independent of shape
frequency and c is speed of light.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1 First Attempt to explain
Radiation curve behavior.
(Classical approach)
This equation is the Rayleigh-Jeans formula for black body radiation. Therefore, energy of standing
waves (total energy per unit volume) with
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Classical average energy
per standing wave
This radiation rate is proportional to this energy density for frequencies between ν and
ν + dν. This equation contains everything that classical physics can say about the
spectrum of blackbody radiation.
How many independent standing waves with wavelengths between 9.5 and 10.5 mm
can occur in a cubical cavity 1 m on a side? How many with wavelengths between 99.5
and 100.5 mm?
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•It agrees with experimental
measurements for long wavelengths.
•It predicts an energy output that diverges
towards infinity as wavelengths grow
smaller.
•The failure has become known as the
ultraviolet catastrophe .
•Another discrepancy between theory and
experiment concerns the total power
emitted by the black body. Rayleigh-Jeans Law
The Rayleigh–Jeans law may be used to
accurately describe the long wavelength
spectrum of thermal radiation but fails to
describe the short wavelength spectrum
of thermal emission .
15B11PH111 ODD2020 9 Physics-1
Let us consider Rayleigh-Jeans formula
According to this equation, as ν increases
However, in reality as shown in the figure,
This discrepancy between theory and the experiment is known as
“Ultraviolet catastrophe”. Ultraviolet catastrophe
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
Wien's Law of Radiation
also sometimes called Wien's law or the Wien distribution law is a law of physics used to
describe the spectrum of thermal radiation
The equation does accurately describe the
short wavelength (high frequency) spectrum of
thermal emission from objects, but it fails to
accurately fit the experimental data for long
wavelengths (low frequency) emission.
Wien derived his law from thermodynamic
arguments, several years before Planck
introduced the quantization of radiation.
I is the amount of energy per unit surface
area per unit time per unit solid angle per
unit frequency emitted at a frequency ν.
Spectral energy density u(ν)dν
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Wein’s Law: Second Attempt to explain Radiation
curve behavior. (analogy to gas molecules)
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Content to be covered
❖Planck’s Quantum Postulates
❖Average energy of Planck's oscillator
❑Deduction of Rayleigh-Jean’s Law and Wien’s Law
❖Wien’s displacement law
❖Stefan-Boltzmann Law
❖Summary of Black Body radiation Lecture
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 1
1. A black body radiation chamber is filled up not only with radiation, but also
with simple harmonic oscillators or resonators (energy emitters) of the
molecular dimensions, known as Planck's oscillators or Planck's resonators,
which can vibrate, with all possible frequencies. The vibration of the
resonator entails one degree of freedom only.
2. The oscillators (or resonators) cannot radiate or absorb energy continuously,
but energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of packets or quanta called
photons. the theory states that the exchange of energy between radiation
and matter cannot take place continuously but only in certain multiples of
the fundamental frequency of the resonator (energy emitter).
As the energy of a photon is hv, the energy emitted (or absorbed) is equal to
0, hv, 2hv, 3hv, ..........nhv, i.e., in multiplets of some small unit, called as
quantum.
Planck’s Quantum Postulates
15B11PH111 ODD2020 2 Physics-1
Max Planck:
Blackbody radiation is produced by vibrating submicroscopic electric charges,
which he called resonators. the walls of a cavity are composed of resonators
vibrating at different frequency.
Classical Maxwell theory :
An oscillator of frequency ν could have any value of energy and could change its
amplitude continuously by radiating any fraction of its energy
Planck : the total energy of a resonator with frequency ν could only be an integer
multiple of hν . (During emission or absorption of light) resonator can change its
4hν
3hν
2hν
hν
0
15B11PH111 ODD2020 3 Physics-1
NoN1N2N3
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
∴ average Energy of a resonator will be
According to Maxwell's law of molecular motion,
If No → number of resonators having energy zero , then the
number of resonators N1 having energy E1 will be
The total energy of Plank’s resonator will be
Average energy of Planck's oscillator
15B11PH111 ODD2020 5 Physics-1
Therefore, the energy density belonging to the range dv can be obtained
by multiplying the average energy of Planck's oscillator by the number
of oscillators per unit volume, in this frequency range ν and (ν + dν).
where u(ν)dν is energy density (i.e., total energy per unit volume)
belonging to the range dν called Planck's radiation law in terms of
15B11PH111 ODD2020 6 Physics-1
"Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object or
system which absorbs all radiation incident upon it and
re-radiates energy which is characteristic of this radiating system
only, not dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident
upon it. The radiated energy can be considered to be produced
by standing wave or resonant modes of the cavity which is
radiating
15B11PH111 ODD2020 7 Physics-1 Number of modes per
unit frequency per
unit volume Probability of occupying
modes Average energy per
mode
Classical Equal for all modes
Quantum Quantized modes: require
hν energy to excite upper
modes, less probable
known as Wien’s law
15B11PH111 ODD2020 8 Physics-1
The wavelength whose energy density is greatest can be obtained by setting
which may be written as
This equation is known as Wien’s displacement law . It
quantitatively expresses the empirical fact that the peak in the
black body spectrum shifts progressively to shorter wavelength
(higher frequencies) as the temperature is increased.
Wien’s displacement law
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Wien’s displacement law
15B11PH111 ODD2020 10 Physics-1
Total energy density within the cavity can be obtained by integrating energy
density (eq. 3) over all frequencies. Thus
Here a is a universal constant. According to the equation, the total energy
density is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of
the cavity walls. Therefore we expect that energy E radiated by a black
body per second per unit area is also proportional to T4 i.e.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
15B11PH111 ODD2020 11 Physics-1
1. The black body does radiate energy at every
wavelength . Energy of the radiation initially
increases, reaching at a maxima (peak wavelength)
then decreases but never goes to zero.
2. At 5000K the peak wavelength is about (500nm or
(Example : Sun)
3. At a given T, the intensity of heat radiation
intensity of heat radiation ↓.
4. An ↑ in T causes an ↑ in the energy emission,
for all wavelength.
This is called Wein’s displacement law. It
therefore begins to move from the infra-red
towards the visible part of the spectrum.
The Black Body radiation curve
Black body radiation curves
showing peak wavelengths (Red
line) at various temperatures Black body radiation curve for
5000K. Peak wavelength is 500nm.
15B11PH111 ODD2020 12 Physics-1
5. At each temperature the black body emits a standard amount of energy .
The area under each curve represents the total energy emitted by the body
with ↑ in temperature of the body. It is found that the area is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the body, i.e., E ∝
15B11PH111 ODD2020 13 Physics-1
Content to be covered
❖Definition of quantum numbers
❖Orbital and spin angular momentum
❖Space quantization
❖Spin-orbit coupling
❖Designation of states
❖Atoms in magnetic field
❖Normal Zeeman effect Lecture #33-36
Resources to be consulted
❑Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
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•Light emitted from hot body on passing through a prism gives
continuous spectrum.
•After passing through a cool gas some wavelength were
missing in the spectrum of same light.
•Light emitted from a hot gas, bright lines of certain
wavelength were observed through prism.
•Excited atoms emit light of only certain wavelengths.
•The wavelengths of emitted light depend on the element. Atomic Structure
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Hydrogen Atom Spectra
❑Absorption spectra have black lines (gaps) on a
bright background, whereas emission spectra
have bright lines on a black background.
❑In both types of spectra the lines are in the same
places and also the lines are more closely spaced
When an atomic gas or
vapor is excited, the
emitted radiation has a
spectrum which contains
certain specific wavelength
only.
Classical physics can’t
explain this
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A brief overview of the relationship between the quantum
numbers that come out of the quantum mechanical calculations
and the atomic orbital that used to describe the energies and
probabilities of finding the electrons in an atom.
There are four quantum numbers associated with an electron
n, ■, m■, msQuantum Numbers
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It determines the energy and the average distance between
electron and nucleus, i.e. size of the atom .
The maximum number of electrons in an orbit represented by this
quantum number is 2n2.
n → shell →K,L,M….Allowed states : Any number
Azimuthal or orbital or angular quantum number.
It determines the number of sub shells or sublevels to which the
electron belongs. It tells about the shape of sub-shells .
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•The orbital or angular momentum quantum number ■ tells us the
magnitude of the orbital angular momentum ‘L’. Such that
•To describe it fully, the direction of this momentum is required.
•We know that when the electron revolves around the nucleus gives
rise to current loop and a magnetic field is associated with it.
•Hence, atomic electron possessing an angular momentum interacts
with this magnetic field.
•The magnetic quantum number m■ specifies the direction of ‘L’ by
determining the component of ‘L’ in the field direction. This
phenomenon is called SPACE QUANTIZATION .
•Direction of L is perpendicular to the plane of circle. Space Quantization
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•Let the direction of magnetic field be parallel to z-axis, then
•m■ :The magnetic quantum number.
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and -■.
•It was proposed by Zeeman.
•It gives the number of permitted
orientation of sub-shells.
•The space quantization of a molecule
Vector model of orbital
angular momentum
Space Quantization
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•Each electron has an intrinsic angular momentum which is same
for all electron.
•The spin motion of the electron around its own axis also
produces a magnetic field
ms → The spin projection quantum number
or magnetic quantum number for
spin motion
Spin Quantum Number : s
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When the orbital angular momentum ( ■) and spin angular
momentum ( s) are coupled, the total angular momentum is of the
general form for quantized angular momentum
such that
This gives a z-component of angular momentum
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•As long as external interactions are not extremely strong, the
total angular momentum of an electron can be considered to be
conserved and j is said to be a "good quantum number".
•This quantum number is used to characterize the splitting of
atomic energy levels, such as the spin-orbit splitting which leads
to the sodium doublet.
•Since Jz , Sz and Lz are scalar quantities so
•since m■ is an integer and ms is ½; so mj must be half-integer. Total Angular Momentum : J
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This phenomenon is called L-S coupling.
"Vector cones" of total angular momentum J
(purple), orbital L (blue), and spin S (green). The
cones arise due to quantum uncertainty
between measuring angular momentum
components Two ways to combine L and S are
Pauli exclusion principle
No two electrons can have all their
quantum numbers alike. L-S Coupling
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Indicates the number of possible quantum states of a system with
given principal spin quantum number S.
The different states along any direction are distinguished by the
spin quantum number S, which can take the values -S, (-S+1),
...,(S-1), S.
multiplied by the Electron Spin Quantum Number, [Link] Multiplicity Coupling of orbital momenta
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Spin Multiplicity
The most important application is two electrons.
Two electrons can pair up in a singlet or in a triplet state . Normally the
singlet is the ground state .
E.g. oxygen has two singly occupied electrons which could have spin
multiplicity of 3.
This means that the spins could be up-up or up-down or down down,
total 3 possibilities.
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Designation of states: For two electron case
Coupling of orbital angular momenta
•■ 1 → orbital quantum number for first electron
•■ 2 → orbital quantum number for second electron
After coupling resultant orbital quantum number:
Coupling of spin angular momenta :
•s1 → spin quantum number for first electron
•s2 → spin quantum number for second
After coupling resultant spin quantum number:
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SPIN ORBIT COUPLING
J is the total inner quantum number
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•n → Principle quantum number
•L → Total Orbital Quantum Number
•J → Total Inner Quantum Number
Atoms with one electron in the outermost shell will give rise doublet in
atomic spectrum
Atoms with two electron in the outermost shell will give rise singlet and
triplet in atomic spectrum. State Designation: n MLj
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STATE
ground state
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excited state 1s1 2s1
Designation or Term symbol: 1 1S0Helium atom
excited state 1s1 2p1
triplet
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Zeeman Effect
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Now let us consider motion of an electron in
the orbital of a hydrogen atom as a current
loop.
Magnetic moment
Suppose electron’s orbital frequency is f
Angular momentum of the electron
Atom in magnetic field
…Eq. (1)
…Eq. (2)
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Atom in magnetic field
From Eqs. (1) and (2)
opposite direction to that of L.
The magnetic potential energy of an atom in a magnetic field is
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moment and the orientation of the moment with respect to the field. Consider a magnetic dipole
(magnetic dipole moment
Atom in magnetic field
•Magnetic dipole tends to align itself with an external magnetic field.
when
when i. e. dipole is parallel or anti-parallel to the field.
i. e. dipole is perpendicular to the field.
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Suppose hydrogen atom is placed in a magnetic field such that its magnetic
potential energy would be
Bohr magneton
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•In magnetic field the energy of a particular atomic state depends on the value of
ml as well as on n.
•A state of total quantum number n breaks up into several sub-states when the
atom is in a magnetic field and their energies are slightly more or slightly less
than energy of the state in the absence of the field.
•This phenomenon leads to splitting of individual spectral lines into separate
lines when atoms radiate in a magnetic field.
•The spacing of the lines depends on the magnitude of the field.
•The splitting of spectral lines by magnetic field is called Zeeman effect .
•Normal Zeeman effect consists of splitting of a spectral line of frequency ν0 into
three components whose frequencies are
Zeeman Effect
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Therefore potential energies of this electron would be
1.
Splitting of energy level: Zeeman Effect
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Transition between two states of different ■ is restricted by
selection rule given as:
Due to this restriction, transition between two states of different ■
splits into only three components which is called NORMAL ZEEMAN
EFFECT. A state of given orbital quantum number ■ splits into 2■+1 sub-states which differ in
[FIVE levels ( 2×2+1 )]
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Remember
Selection rule
Zeeman Effect
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1. A sample of certain element is placed in a 0.300 Tesla magnetic field and suitable excited.
How far apart the Zeeman components of the 450 nm spectral line of this element?
Separation of the Zeeman component is given by Problem
2. The Zeeman component of a 500 nm spectral lines are 0.0116 nm apart when magnetic
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