DIGITAL LOGIC & COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION (DL&CO)
LECTURE NOTES
II B.Tech (CSE, AI&DS,AI&ML)

Prepared By

Mrs. A.SAHITHI

Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE

Department of

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES, KADAPA

Utukur (P), C. K. Dinne (V&M), Kadapa, YSR Dist.

B.Tech. CSE, AI&DS, AI&ML HM 23 Regulations
AITS
II Year B.Tech. , I Semester

L T P C
3 0 0 3
(23HES0402) DIGITAL LOGIC & COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION

Course Objectives: The main objective of the course is to

• Provide students with a comprehensive understanding of digital logic design

principles and computer organization fundamentals
• Describe memory hierarchy concepts
• Explain input/output (I/O) systems and their interaction with the CPU, memory, and
peripheral devices

Course Outcomes: After completion of the course, students will be able to

• Differentiate between combinational and sequential circuits based on their characteristics

and functionalities. (L2)
• Demonstrate an understanding of computer functional units.(L2)
• Analyze the design and operation of processors, including instruction execution,
pipelining, and control unit mechanisms, to comprehend their role in computer
systems.(L3)
• Describe memory hierarchy concepts, including cache memory, virtual memory, and
secondary storage, and evaluate their impact on system performance and scalability. (L3)
• Explain input/output (I/O) systems and their interaction with the CPU, memory, and
peripheral devices, including interrupts, DMA, and I/O mapping techniques. (L3)
• Design Sequential and Combinational Circuits(L6)

UNIT–I:
Data Representation: Binary Numbers, Fixed Point Representation, Floating Point
Representation, Number base conversions, Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers, Complements,
Signed binary numbers
Digital Logic Circuits-I: Basic Logic Functions, Logic gates, universal logic gates, Minimization
of Logic expressions. K-Map Simplification, Combinational Circuits, Decoders, Multiplexers

UNIT–II:
Digital Logic Circuits-II: Sequential Circuits, Flip-Flop Conversions, Binary counters, Ripple
counters

Basic Structure of Computers: Computer Types, Functional units, Basic operational concepts,
Bus structures, Software, Performance, multiprocessors and multi computers, Computer
Generations, Von- Neumann Architecture

UNIT– III:
Computer Arithmetic : Addition and Subtraction, Multiplication Algorithms, Design of Fast
Adders, Multiplication of Positive Numbers, Signed-operand Multiplication, Fast Multiplication,
Integer Division, Floating-Point Numbers and Operations
Processor Organization: Fundamental Concepts, Execution of a Complete Instruction, Multiple-
Bus Organization, Hardwired Control and Multi programmed Control
B.Tech. CSE, AI&DS, AI&ML HM 23 Regulations
AITS

UNIT–IV:
The Memory Organization: Basic Concepts, Semiconductor RAM Memories, Read-Only
Memories, Speed, Size and Cost, Cache Memories, Performance Considerations, Virtual
Memories, Memory Management Requirements, Secondary Storage

UNIT–V:
Input /Output Organization: Accessing I/O Devices, Interrupts, Processor Examples, Direct
Memory Access, Buses, Interface Circuits, Standard I/O Interfaces

Textbooks:
1. Computer Organization, Carl Hamacher,ZvonkoVranesic,Safwat Zaky,6thedition,
McGraw Hill, 2023.
2. DigitalDesign,6thEdition,M.Morris Mano,PearsonEducation,2018.
3. ComputerOrganizationandArchitecture,WilliamStallings,11thEdition,Pearson, 2022.

Reference Books:
1. Computer Systems Architecture,M.Moris Mano,3rdEdition,Pearson,2017.
2. Computer Organization and Design, David A. Paterson, John L. Hennessy,
Elsevier,2004.
3. FundamentalsofLogicDesign,Roth,5thEdition,Thomson,2003.

OnlineLearningResources:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/103/106103068/
 UNIT-I

Computer:
It is a fast-electronic calculating machine which accepts digitized input information
and process it according to the instructions stored in the memory and produces results on the
output device.
Sequence of instructions stored in the internal storage is called Computer Program and
internal storage is called Computer memory.

Computer Types
Computer types may vary according to the size, cost, Computational Power etc.
Micro Computers
 It is like personal computers, it is widely used in homes, schools, offices etc.
 It provides variety of computing applications such as word processing, photo editing,
E-mail and internet etc.
 It is designed to meets the needs of an individual.
Portable Notebook Computers
 These are the compact version of personal computers
 In these all components are integrated as one compact unit.
 It runs on Power Supply or a battery unit.
 It is more expensive than personal computer.
Example: Laptop, tab
Workstations
 It is powerful desktop designed for specialized tasks
 It has more computational power than personal computers.
 It is widely used in engineering applications and in interactive graphics
applications.
Main Frames or Enterprise Systems
Mainframe computers are larger and more processing power than some other computers
like minicomputer, work stations and personal computers.
These types of computers are used for complex scientific calculations, large data
processing applications, military defense control and for complex graphics applications.
Servers
 These computers have large storage unit and faster communication links.
 Servers plays major role in internet communication
Super Computers
 A computer that is considered to be fastest in the world.
 It is used to execute tasks that would take a lot of time for other computers.
 It is used for large scale numerical calculations required in applications such as
 Weather forecasting, aircraft design and simulation

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 FUNCTIONAL UNITS
A computer consists of 5 functionally independent main parts:
1) Input
2) Memory
3) ALU
4) Output &
5) Control units.

Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e. high-level language. This
is either stored in the memory or immediately used by the processor to perform the desired
operations. The program stored in the memory determines the processing steps. Basically, the
computer converts one source program to an object program. i.e. into machine language.
Finally, the results are sent to the outside world through output device. All of these actions are
coordinated by the control unit.

Input unit:
The source program/high level language program/coded information/simply data is fed to
a computer through input devices keyboard is a most common type. Whenever a key is pressed,
one corresponding word or number is translated into its equivalent binary code over a cable & fed
either to memory or processor.
Joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners etc are other input devices.

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 Memory unit:
Its function into store programs and data. It is basically to two types
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory

1. Primary memory: - Is the one exclusively associated with the processor and operates at the
electronics speeds programs must be stored in this memory while they are being executed. The
memory contains a large number of semiconductors storage cells. Each capable of storing one bit
of information. These are processed in a group of fixed site called word.
To provide easy access to a word in memory, a distinct address is associated with each word
location. Addresses are numbers that identify memory location.
Number of bits in each word is called word length of the computer. Programs must reside
in the memory during execution. Instructions and data can be written into the memory or read out
under the control of processor.
Memory in which any location can be reached in a short and fixed amount of time after
specifying its address is called random-access memory (RAM).
The time required to access one word in called memory access time. Memory which is
only readable by the user and contents of which can’t be altered is called read only memory
(ROM) it contains operating system.
Caches are the small fast RAM units, which are coupled with the processor and are aften
contained on the same IC chip to achieve high performance. Although primary storage is essential
it tends to be expensive.
2 Secondary memory: - Is used where large amounts of data & programs have to be stored,
particularly information that is accessed infrequently.
Examples: - Magnetic disks & tapes, optical disks (CD-ROM’s), floppies etc.,

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU):

Most of the computer operators are executed in ALU of the processor like addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. the operands are brought into the ALU from memory and
stored in high speed storage elements called register. Then according to the instructions, the
operation is performed in the required sequence.
The control and the ALU are many times faster than other devices connected to a computer
system. This enables a single processor to control a number of external devices such as key boards,
displays, magnetic and optical disks, sensors and other mechanical controllers.

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 Output unit:
These actually are the counterparts of input unit. Its basic function is to send the processed
results to the outside world.
Examples: Printer, speakers, monitor etc.

Control unit:
It effectively is the nerve centre that sends signals to other units and senses their states. The
actual timing signals that govern the transfer of data between input unit, processor, memory and
output unit are generated by the control unit

BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS

• An Instruction consists of 2 parts, 1) Operation code (Opcode) and 2) Operands.

OPCODE OPERANDS
• The data/operands are stored in memory.
• The individual instruction are brought from the memory to the processor.
• Then, the processor performs the specified operation.
• Let us see a typical instruction
ADD LOCA, R0
• This instruction is an addition operation. The following are the steps to execute
the instruction: Step 1: Fetch the instruction from main-memory into the
processor.
Step 2: Fetch the operand at location LOCA from main-memory into the processor.
Step 3: Add the memory operand (i.e. fetched contents of LOCA) to the contents
of register R0. Step 4: Store the result (sum) in R0.
• The same instruction can be realized using 2 instructions as:
LOAD LOCA, R1
ADD R1, R0
• The following are the steps to execute the instruction:
Step 1: Fetch the instruction from main-memory into the processor.
Step 2: Fetch the operand at location LOCA from main-memory into
the register R1. Step 3: Add the content of Register R1 and the
contents of register R0.
Step 4: Store the result (sum) in R0.

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 MAIN PARTS OF PROCESSOR

• The processor contains ALU, control-circuitry and many registers.

• The processor contains „n‟ general-purpose registers R0 through Rn-1.
• The IR holds the instruction that is currently being executed.
• The control-unit generates the timing-signals that determine when a given action is to take
place.
• The PC contains the memory-address of the next-instruction to be fetched & executed.
• During the execution of an instruction, the contents of PC are updated to point to next
instruction.
• The MAR holds the address of the memory-location to be accessed.
• The MDR contains the data to be written into or read out of the addressed location.
• MAR and MDR facilitates the
communication with memory
• IR: Instruction Register,
• PC: Program counter

(MAR: Memory Address Register, MDR: Memory Data Register)

STEPS TO EXECUTE AN INSTRUCTION

1) The address of first instruction (to be executed) gets loaded into PC.
2) The contents of PC (i.e. address) are transferred to the MAR & control-unit issues
Read signal to memory.
3) After certain amount of elapsed time, the first instruction is read out of memory and
placed into MDR.
4) Next, the contents of MDR are transferred to IR. At this point, the instruction can be
decoded & executed.
5) To fetch an operand, it's address is placed into MAR & control-unit issues Read
signal. As a result, the operand is transferred from memory into MDR, and then it is
transferred from MDR to ALU.
6) Likewise required number of operands is fetched into processor.
7) Finally, ALU performs the desired operation.
8) If the result of this operation is to be stored in the memory, then the result is sent to the MDR.
9) The address of the location where the result is to be stored is sent to the MAR and a
Write cycle is initiated.
10) At some point during execution, contents of PC are incremented to point to next
instruction in the program.

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 BUS STRUCTURE
• A bus is a group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices.
• A bus may be lines or wires.
• The lines carry data or address or control signal.
• There are 2 types of Bus structures: 1) Single Bus Structure and 2) Multiple Bus Structure.

1) Single Bus Structure

 Because the bus can be used for only one transfer at a time, only 2 units can
actively use the bus at any given time.
 Bus control lines are used to arbitrate multiple requests for use of the bus.
 Advantages:
1) Low cost &
2) Flexibility for attaching peripheral devices.

2) Multiple Bus Structure

 Systems that contain multiple buses achieve more concurrency in operations.

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  Two or more transfers can be carried out at the same time.
 Advantage: Better performance.
 Disadvantage: Increased cost.

• The devices connected to a bus vary widely in their speed of operation.

• To synchronize their operational-speed, buffer-registers can be used.
• Buffer Registers
→ are included with the devices to hold the information during transfers.
→ prevent a high-speed processor from being locked to a slow I/O device during data
transfers.

SOFTWARE

If a user wants to enter and run an application program, he/she needs a System Software.
System Software is a collection of programs that are executed as needed to perform
functions such as:

 Receiving and interpreting user commands

 Entering and editing application programs and storing then as files in
secondary storage devices
 Running standard application programs such as word processors,
spread sheets, games etc…
Operating system - is key system software component which helps the user to exploit
the below underlying hardware with the program.
USER PROGRAM and OS ROUTINE INTERACTION

Let‟s assume computer with 1 processor, 1 disk and 1 printer and application
program is in machine code on disk. The various tasks are performed in a
coordinated fashion, which is called multitasking. t0, t1 …t5 are the instances of
time and the interaction during various instances as given below:
t0: the OS loads the program from disk to memory.
t1: program executes
t2: program accesses disk
t3: program executes some more.
t4:program accesses printer

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 t5: program terminates

Figure 1.4 : User program and OS routine sharing of the processor

Data Types:
Binary information in digital computers is stored in memory or processor register.
 Registers contain either data or control information .
 Control information is a bit or group of bits used to specify the sequence of command signals
needed for data manipulation.
 Data are numbers and other binary-coded information that are operated on .
 Possible data types in registers:
 Numbers used in computations.
 Letters of the alphabet used in data processing
 Other discrete symbols used for specific purposes.
 All types of data, except binary numbers, are represented in binary-coded form .

 A number system of base, or radix, r is a system that uses distinct symbols for r digits.
 Numbers are represented by a string of digit symbols.
 The string of digits 724.5 represents the quantity
7 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 4 x 100 + 5 x 10-1
The string of digits 101101 in the binary number system represents the quantity.
1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 45
(101101)2 = (45)10
We will also use the octal (radix 8) and hexidecimal (radix 16) number systems

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 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS :Development of technologies used to fabricate the
processors, memories and I/O units of the computers has been divided into various generations
as given below: • First generation
• Second generation
• Third generation
• Fourth generation
• Beyond the fourth generation
Computer Organization First generation: 1946 to 1955: Computers of this
generation used Vacuum Tubes. The computes were built using stored program concept. Ex:
ENIAC, EDSAC, IBM 701. Computers of this age typically used about ten thousand vacuum
tubes. They were bulky in size had slow operating speed, short life time and limited
programming facilities.
Second generation: 1955 to 1965: Computers of this generation used the germanium
transistors as the active switching electronic device. Ex: IBM 7000, B5000, IBM 1401.
Comparatively smaller in size About ten times faster operating speed as compared to first
generation vacuum tube based computers. Consumed less power, had fairly good reliability.
Availability of large memory was an added advantage.
Third generation: 1965 to 1975: The computers of this generation used the Integrated
Circuits as the active electronic components. Ex: IBM system 360, PDP minicomputer etc.
They were still smaller in size. They had powerful CPUs with the capacity of executing 1
million instructions per second (MIPS). Used to consume very less power consumption. Fourth
generation: 1976 to 1990: The computers of this generation used the LSI chips like
microprocessor as their active electronic element. HCL horizen III, and WIPRO‟S Uniplus+
HCL‟s Busybee PC etc. They used high speed microprocessor as CPU. They were more user
friendly and highly reliable systems. They had large storage capacity disk memories.
Beyond Fourth Generation: 1990 onwards: Specialized and dedicated VLSI chips
are used to control specific functions of these computers. Modern Desktop PC‟s, Laptops or
Notebook Computers.
PERFORMANCE
The most important measure of the performance of a computer is how quickly it can
execute programs. The speed with which a computer executes program is affected by the design
of its hardware. For best performance, it is necessary to design the compiles, the machine
instruction set, and the hardware in a coordinated way. The total time required to execute the
program is elapsed time is a measure of the performance of the entire computer system. It is
affected by the speed of the processor, the disk and the printer. The time needed to execute a
instruction is called the processor time.
Just as the elapsed time for the execution of a program depends on all units in a
computer system, the processor time depends on the hardware involved in the execution of
individual machine instructions. This hardware comprises the processor and the memory which
are usually connected by the bus. The pertinent parts of the fig. c is repeated in fig. d which
includes the cache memory as part of the processor unit.
Let us examine the flow of program instructions and data between the memory and the
processor. At the start of execution, all program instructions and the required data are stored in
the main memory. As the execution proceeds, instructions are fetched one by one over the bus
into the processor, and a copy is placed in the cache later if the same instruction or data item is
needed a second time, it is read directly from the cache. The processor and relatively small
cache memory can be fabricated on a single IC chip. The internal speed of performing the basic
steps of instruction processing on chip is very high and is considerably faster than the speed at
which the instruction and data can be fetched from the main memory. A program will be
executed faster if the movement of instructions and data between the main memory and the
processor is minimized, which is achieved by using the cache.
For example:- Suppose a number of instructions are executed repeatedly over a short period
of time as happens in a program loop. If these instructions are available in the cache, they can
be fetched quickly during the period of repeated use. The same applies to the data that are used
repeatedly. Processor clock: Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called clock.
The clock designer the regular time intervals called clock cycles. To execute a machine
instruction the processor divides the action to be performed into a sequence of basic steps that
each step can be completed in one clock cycle. The length P of one clock cycle is an important
parameter that affects the processor performance. Processor used in today‟s personal computer
and work station have a clock rates that range from a few hundred million to over a billion
cycles per second.
Basic performance equation: We now focus our attention on the processor time component
of the total elapsed time. Let „T‟ be the processor time required to execute a program that has
been prepared in some high-level language. The compiler generates a machine language object
program that corresponds to the source program. Assume that complete execution of the
program requires the execution of N machine cycle language instructions. The number N is the
actual number of instruction execution and is not necessarily equal to the number of machine
cycle instructions in the object program. Some instruction may be executed more than once,
which in the case for instructions inside a program loop others may not be executed all,
depending on the input data used. Suppose that the average number of basic steps needed to
execute one machine cycle instruction is S, where each basic step is completed in one clock
cycle. If clock rate is „R‟ cycles per second, the program execution time is given by T=N*S/R
this is often referred to as the basic performance equation. We must emphasize that N, S & R
are not independent parameters changing one may affect another. Introducing a new feature in
the design of a processor will lead to improved performance only if the overall result is to
reduce the value of T.
Performance measurements: It is very important to be able to access the performance of a
computer, comp designers use performance estimates to evaluate the effectiveness of new
features. The previous argument suggests that the performance of a computer is given by the
execution time T, for the program of interest. Inspite of the performance equation being so
simple, the evaluation of „T‟ is highly complex. Moreover the parameters like the clock speed
and various architectural features are not reliable indicators of the expected performance.
Hence measurement of computer performance using bench mark programs is done to make
comparisons possible, standardized programs must be used.
The performance measure is the time taken by the computer to execute a given bench mark.
Initially some attempts were made to create artificial programs that could be used as bench
mark programs. But synthetic programs do not properly predict the performance obtained when
real application programs are run. A non profit organization called SPEC- system performance
evaluation corporation selects and publishes bench marks. The program selected range from
game playing, compiler, and data base applications to numerically intensive programs in
astrophysics and quantum chemistry. In each case, the program is compiled under test, and the
running time on a real computer is measured. The same program is also compiled and run on
one computer selected as reference. The „SPEC‟ rating is computed as follows.
Running time on the reference computer
SPEC rating = ---------------------------------------------------
Running time on the computer under test
If the SPEC rating = 50

Multiprocessor and Multicomputer:

Multiprocessor: A Multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central
processing units (CPUs) share full access to a common RAM. The main objective of using a
multiprocessor is to boost the system’s execution speed, with other objectives being fault
tolerance and application matching. There are two types of multiprocessors, one is called
shared memory multiprocessor and another is distributed memory multiprocessor. In shared
memory multiprocessors, all the CPUs shares the common memory but in a distributed memory
multiprocessor, every CPU has its own private memory.
The interconnection among two or more processor and shared memory is done with three
methods:
1)Time shared common bus
2)Multiport memories
3)Crossbar switch network

1)Time shared common bus

As the name itself indicates, int this method is contains a single shared bus through which all
processor & memory unit can be communicated.
Consider CPU-1 is interacting with memory unit using common shared bud in that case all
other processor must be idle as we have only one bus to communicate.
Advantage:
Simple to implement.
Due to single common bus cost to implement is very less.
Disadvantage:
Data transfer rate is slow.
Multiport memories:
Unlike in the shared common bus method, hence it contains separate bus for each processor to
communicate with the memory module. Suppose CPU-1 wants to interact with memory module
1 then port mm1 is enabled. Similarly, CPU-4 wants toto interact with memory module 4 then
port mm4 is enabled. Hence all the process can be communicated parallelly. If more than one
CPU request for same time memory module, priority will be given in the order of CPU-1,CPU-
2,CPU-3,CPU-4.

Crossbar switch network:

 Here instead multiport unlike in multiport memories, a switch will be installed between
memory unit and CPU. Switch is responsible for whether to pass the request to a particular
memory module or not based on the request made for

Multicomputer: A multicomputer system is a computer system with multiple processors that

are connected together to solve a problem. Each processor has its own memory and it is
accessible by that particular processor and those processors can communicate with each other
via an interconnection network.

As the multicomputer is capable of messages passing between the processors, it is possible

to divide the task between the processors to complete the task. Hence, a multicomputer can
be used for distributed computing. It is cost effective and easier to build a multicomputer
than a multiprocessor. Difference between multiprocessor and Multicomputer:
1. Multiprocessor is a system with two or more central processing units (CPUs) that is
capable of performing multiple tasks where as a multicomputer is a system with multiple
processors that are attached via an interconnection network to perform a computation
task.
2. A multiprocessor system is a single computer that operates with multiple CPUs where as
a multicomputer system is a cluster of computers that operate as a singular computer.
3. Construction of multicomputer is easier and cost effective than a multiprocessor.
4. In multiprocessor system, program tends to be easier where as in multicomputer system,
program tends to be more difficult.
5. Multiprocessor supports parallel computing, Multicomputer supports distributed
computing.
Features Multiprocessor System Multicomputer System

Definition It is a system with multiple processors It is a collection of processors linked

that enables programs to be processed at by a communication network that
the same time. collaborate to solve a computation
task.

Programming It is easy to program. It is complex to program.

Computing It supports parallel computing. It supports distributed computing.

 Construction It is easy and less expensive to develop. It is complex and expensive to
develop.

Type of network It is a type of dynamic network. It is a type of static network.

Communication It requires proper communication There is no interaction between

between processing between the processing components and processor units or memory resources.
elements memory for successful resource
allocation.

Another name It is also known as the tightly coupled It is also known as loosely coupled
system. systems.

Example Sequent symmetry S-81 is an example of Message-passing multicomputer is an

a multiprocessor system. example of the multicomputer system.

Execution It may execute the programs very It may run slowly.

quickly.

Von Neumann architecture:

Von-Neumann computer architecture design was proposed in 1945.It was later known
as Von-Neumann architecture. Historically there have been 2 types of Computers:
1. Fixed Program Computers – Their function is very specific and they couldn’t be
reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators.
2. Stored Program Computers – These can be programmed to carry out many different
tasks, applications are stored on them, hence the name.
Modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John Von
Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in the same memory.
This novel idea meant that a computer built with this architecture would be much easier to
reprogram. The basic structure is like this,

It is also known as ISA (Instruction set architecture) computer and is having three basic units:
1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. The Main Memory Unit
3. The Input/Output Device Let’s consider them in detail.
1. Central Processing Unit-
The central processing unit is defined as the it is an electric circuit used for the executing
the instruction of computer program.
It has following major components:
1. Control Unit(CU) 2.Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU) 3.variety of Registers
• Control Unit– A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input
and output flow, fetches code for instructions, and controls how data moves around the
system.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU)– The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the CPU that
handles all the calculations the CPU may need, e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons. It
performs Logical Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic operations.
 Figure – Basic CPU structure, illustrating ALU
• Registers – Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by
the CPU are fetched from the registers. There are different types of registers used in
architecture :-
1. Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU. It holds the
intermediate of arithmetic and logical operatoins.it act as a temporary storage location
or device.
2. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next instructions
to be dealt with. The PC then passes this next address to the Memory Address Register
(MAR).
3. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of instructions that
need to be fetched from memory or stored in memory.
Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from memory or any data that
is to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.
5. Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched instructions
while it is waiting to be coded and executed.
6. Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be executed
immediately is placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.

• Buses – Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major
internal components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:
1. Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the processor.
2. Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory and
processor.
3. Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals from other
devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer.
• Input / Output Devices – Program or data is read into main memory from the input
device or secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output devices are
used to output information from a computer. If some results are evaluated by the computer
and it is stored in the computer, then with the help of output devices, we can present them
to the user.
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 ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES :: KADAPA
(AUTONOMOUS) SET- A
B.Tech II Year I Semester (HM23) Pre-Final Examinations, OCT- 2024

SUBJECT: DIGITAL LOGIC & COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (23HES0402)

BRANCH: CSE-A,B, & C
Time: 3hrs Max. Marks: 70
PART-A
Answer all the following questions (10 x 02=20M) 20M
1. Convert (A4B.59E)16 to equivalent Octal number.
2. Calculate (9)10-(15)10 using 2’s complement.
3. Differentiate between Decoder and Multiplexer.
4. Compare Combinational and Sequential Logic circuits.
5. Write any three differences between Multiprocessors and Multicomputers.
6. List the rules for floating point addition and subtraction.
7. Write a short notes on Secondary storage devices.
8. Define Virtual memory.
9. Compare Parallel and serial ports of an interface circuit.
10. What is an Interrupt.
PART-B

Answer the following questions (05x10=50M) 50M

11. Convert the following into required form:

(i)(F3B)16 = ( )10
(ii)(53)10= ( )2
(iii)(257)8 = ( )2
(iv)(1BB)16 =( )2
(v)(1101101)2 = ( )8
(OR)
12. Simplify the POS expression using K-map method.
F= 𝜋(0,1,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14)

13. What are the steps for Flip-flop Conversions. Perform the conversion of T-Flip-Flop to a) S-R Flip-Flop

b) J-K Flip-Flop

(OR)

14. Define Computer. Explain the various Functional units of a Computer with the help of a block diagram.

15. Explain the Booth’s Multiplication algorithm in detail.

(OR)
16. Explain the execution of a complete instruction with the help of example.

17. Define RAM and ROM. Explain the various types of ROM with neat diagrams.
(OR)
18. Discuss the use of Cache memory with neat diagram.

19. Draw and explain the block diagram of typical DMA controller.

(OR)

20. Define Interface circuit. Write about three Standard I/O Interface devices.
 ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES :: KADAPA
(AUTONOMOUS) SET- B
B.Tech II Year I Semester (HM23) Pre-Final Examinations, OCT- 2024

SUBJECT: DIGITAL LOGIC & COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (23HES0402)

BRANCH: CSE-A,B, & C
Time: 3hrs Max. Marks: 70
PART-A
Answer all the following questions (10 x 02=20M) 20M
1. Convert (543.326)8 to equivalent Hexadecimal number.
2. Calculate (12)10-(14)10 using 2’s complement.
3. Write about the Universal Logic gates with functions and Truth tables.
4. Compare Binary and Ripple counters.
5. Write about signed-operand multiplication.
6. What is bit pair recoding in Fast multiplication.
7. Write a short note on RAM and ROM.
8. Define Cache memory.
9. Compare Synchronous and Asynchronous Buses.
10. What are I/O devices.
PART-B

Answer the following questions (05x10=50M) 50M

11. Convert the following into required form:

(i)(F3B)16 = ( )2
(ii)(53)10= ( )8
(iii)(257)8 = ( )16
(iv)(1BB)16 =( )8
(v)(1101101)2 = ( )10
(OR)
13. Simplify the SOP expression using K-map method.
F= ∑(1,3,5,6,8,11,13,15)

13. What are the steps for Flip-flop Conversions. Perform the conversion of D-Flip-Flop to a) S-R Flip-Flop

b) J-K Flip-Flop

(OR)

14. Define Computer. Explain the Generations of a Computer in detail.

15. Explain the Addition and Subtraction algorithm with a neat sketch.

(OR)
16. Explain the Multiple Bus Organization with neat diagram.

17. Write about Memory Management Requirements in detail.

(OR)
18. Discuss the use of Virtual memory with neat diagram.

19. Explain how I/O devices are Accessed using a block diagram.

(OR)

20. What is an Interrupt. Write the Processor examples in which how interrupts are handled.