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Cfoa Unit 1

The document provides an introduction to computers, detailing their definition, characteristics, and components such as the input, storage, and output units. It categorizes computers based on size, purpose, and type, explaining analog, digital, and hybrid computers, as well as micro, mini, mainframe, and supercomputers. Additionally, it discusses programming languages, data organization, drives, file systems, directories, and the nature of computer memory.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views33 pages

Cfoa Unit 1

The document provides an introduction to computers, detailing their definition, characteristics, and components such as the input, storage, and output units. It categorizes computers based on size, purpose, and type, explaining analog, digital, and hybrid computers, as well as micro, mini, mainframe, and supercomputers. Additionally, it discusses programming languages, data organization, drives, file systems, directories, and the nature of computer memory.

Uploaded by

priyvanshr
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

 COMPUTER
Computer: is an electronic device that operates (works) under the
control of programs stored in its own memory unit.
A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to
give information as output.
An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it
under the influence of a set of special instructions called
Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as
Information).

 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows –


1. Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to
humans while performing mathematical calculations. Computers can
process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken
by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

2. Accuracy
A Computer performs calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may
occur due to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.

3. Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of
concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human
beings.

4. Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different
kinds of works with same accuracy and efficiency.

5. Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data
i.e., if we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the
same result.

6. Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks
without manual intervention.

7. Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores
data. Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives,
etc., which are also used to store data.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER
A digital computer is considered to be a calculating device that
can perform arithmetic operations at enormous speed. It is
defined as a device that operates upon information/data. To be
able to process data the computer is made of various functional
units to perform its specified task.
Input Unit:
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve
any problem. Therefore, we need to input the data and instructions
into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more input
devices. Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input
device. Other commonly used input devices are the Mouse,
Scanner, Microphone etc. All the input devices perform the
following functions.

 Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.


 Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
 Supply the converted data to the computer system for further
processing.

Storage Unit:
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that
are entered through the input unit, before they are processed. It
preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent
to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The
various storage devices of a computer system are divided into two
categories.
a) Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is
generally used to hold the program being currently executed in
the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the
intermediate and final results of the program. The primary
memory is temporary in nature. The data is lost, when the
computer is switched off. In order to store the data
permanently, the data has to be transferred to the secondary
memory. The cost of the primary storage is more compared to
the secondary storage. Therefore, most computers have limited
primary storage capacity.
b) Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It
stores several programs, documents, databases etc. The
programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to
the primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the
results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary
memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the
primary memory. Some of the commonly used secondary
memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,

Memory Size:
All digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0’s and 1’s. Each
character or a number is represented by an 8-bit code.
The set of 8 bits is called a byte. A character occupies 1-byte space.
A numeric occupies 2-byte space. Byte is the space occupied in the
memory.
The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB
(Megabyte). One KB is equal to 1024 bytes and one MB is equal to
1000KB. The size of the primary storage in a typical PC usually starts
at 16MB. PCs having 32 MB, 48MB, 128 MB, 256MB memory are
quite common.

Output Unit:
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results
of a computation to outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit
(VDU) are the commonly used output devices. Other commonly
used output devices are Speaker, Headphone, and Projector etc.

Arithmetic Logical Unit:


All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of
the computer. It also does comparison and takes decision. The ALU
can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations viz, >, <, =,
‘etc.Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers
the data from storage unit to ALU once the computations are done,
the results are transferred to the storage unit by the control unit
and then it is send to the output unit for displaying results.
Control Unit:
It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs
the input unit, where to store the data after receiving it from the
user. It controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage
unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the
storage unit. The control unit is generally referred as the central
nervous system of the computer that control and synchronizes it’s
working.

Central Processing Unit:


The Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the
computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.

 TYPES OF COMPUTER
There are three major categories based on which computers can be
classified. These are:

1. Based on Size
2. Based on Purpose
3. Based on Types
Types of Computer-Based on Types
The three types of computers along with their functions are given
below:

 Analog Computer – An analog computer one that uses the


continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena to model
the problem being solved. These phenomena may be such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities and they are
extremely complex to be used. Such computers are mostly used
for scientific and industrial applications. Examples of Analog
computers include Thermometer, Operational Amplifiers, Electric
Integrators, etc.

 Digital Computer – Such computers are capable of solving


problems in discrete format. It only operates on data entered in
binary language and can perform the dynamic function of
managing large amounts of data and regulating the operations of
the machine, Examples of Digital computers are Desktop, Laptop,
Mobile Phones, etc.
 Hybrid Computer – Computers that exhibit features of both
Analog and Digital computers are called Hybrid Computers. The
logical operations are solved by the digital aspects and the
differential equations are solved using the analog features. Few
important examples of Hybrid Computers include Space Flights,
Food processing Plants, etc.

Types of Computers – Based on Size


Described below are the four types of Computers based on their sizes
along with their functions:

 Micro Computers – A relatively inexpensive and small computer


comprising a microprocessor and a Central Processing Unit (CPU)
is called a Microcomputer. Such computers are made with
minimal circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. Examples
include Desktop, Laptop, etc.

 Mini Computer – Developed in the mid-1960s, Mini computers


are comparatively smaller than mainframe computers. They were
developed keeping in consideration human interaction, control
instrumentation and were cost-effective. For example
Smartphones, iPads, etc.

 Mainframe Computer – Computers used by large Organisations to


manage bulk data are called Mainframe computers. Main
functions of such type include managing customer statistics,
census and other heavy data in a single device. For example, the
system used at Trading companies.
 Super Computer – Computers used at Organisations dealing with
Weather forecasting, Quantum Mechanics, Climate research, etc.,
where high level of performance has to be justified are called
Super Computers.

Types of Computer – By Purpose


On the basis of purpose, there are just two variety of computers. Those
two varieties have been discussed in detail below:

1. General Purpose – Based on General Purpose, there are these


following functions which a device is expected to perform:
1. Basic Input/Output functions
2. Calculations
3. Data Saving on a smaller scale
4. General performing activities
These may include basic calculators, laptops, desktop computers,
mobile phones, etc., which can help people with their basic necessary
functions are included in the General Purpose computer type.
2. Special Purpose – When a computer is designed specifically to
perform a certain function, such type of computers is known as
Special Purpose computer. These types may include:

1. Thermometers to test temperature


2. Generators to manage electricity
3. Devices used for analysing Climate Change
4. Large computers for IT Companies
5. Machines used at Manufacturing Units and the list goes on
and on

 TYPES OF LANGUAGE

There are two Types of language. These are:


1. Low-Level Language
A Low-level computer language consists of only 1’s and 0’s. First
and Second generation computers were first built using this
language. This type of language is easily understood by a
computer but it is very difficult for humans to understand this.
These Low-level languages are specifically designed to interact
with the computer hardware and are categorized into two types-
Machine level language and Assembly level language.

 Machine Level Language


Machine level language is a type of Low-level language. This
language is believed to be the oldest computer language.
Computers tend to understand only the language of Digital
Electronics which deals with the presence and absence of
voltages. 2 logics can play their role within the computer which
are-
Positive Logic: In this, the presence of voltage is denoted by 1 and
the absence of voltage is denoted by 0.
Negative Logic: Here, the presence of voltage is denoted by 0
while the absence of voltage is denoted by 1.
Computers can follow one of the logics at a time and not both
simultaneously. A program can be written using only 0s and 1s to
make the computer understand and data can also be represented
using only 0s and 1s. Such a program is called a Machine Language
program. A computer can directly understand a program written
in the machine language hence, a machine language program
does not require any translator to convert from one form to
another.

 Assembly Level Language


Assembly level language was introduced with the advancement of
Machine Level Language. This computer language uses symbols,
which are popularly known as mnemonics in computer
terminology to write the instructions. Hence, writing a program in
Assembly Level Language is more understandable to humans
rather than machine-level language. In this language, symbolic
names are used to denote addresses and data. The Assembly
language code gets converted into a Machine language code with
the help of an Assembler for the computer to understand the
binary-converted Assembly Language.

2. High-Level Language
High-Level Languages are the advanced development languages in
the evolution of computer languages. The main goal of these
languages is to make programming easier and less error-free.
These high-level languages use words and commands along with
symbols and numbers. High-Level Programming languages are
created to be more user-friendly and easier for humans to
understand than Low-level languages. They use keywords similar
to English words, making coding more intuitive. Here are some
examples of High-Level Programming languages are-
C
C++
Java
Java Script
Python
C#
PHP
Difference between High Level and Low-Level Language:-
s.no High-level language Low-level-language
1. High Level Languages are easily Low-Level languages are hard
understood by humans as they to understand by humans
use English statements. because of the usage of binary
numbers which can be easily
understood by computers.
2. These languages are human- These languages are
friendly. programmer friendly.
3. This takes a long time to be Program Execution time is
executed. less.
4. These are simple to These are complex to
maintain. maintain.
5. Debugging is easy in High-Level Debugging is hard in
languages. Low-level languages.

6. Programs of High-level Programs in low-level


languages are portable hence, languages are not portable.
can be used on any computer.
7. These languages are widely Low-level languages are not
used in today’s technology. used in the prevailing
technology.
 DATA ORGANIZATION

Data organization is the way to arrange the raw data in an


understandable order. Organizing data include classification,
frequency distribution table, picture representation, graphical
representation, etc.
Data organization helps us to arrange the data in order that we can
easily read and work. It is difficult to work or do any analyses on raw
data. Hence, we need to organize the data to represent them in a
proper way.

 DRIVES

A drive is a location (medium) that can store and read information


that is not easily removed, like a disk or disc. All drives
store files and programs used by your computer. For example, when
you write a letter using a word processor, the program is loaded
from the hard drive. When you save the document, it's saved to the
hard drive or other disk or drive. The picture shows different drives
listed in Microsoft Windows My Computer.
In the picture, drive A: is the floppy drive, C: is the primary hard
drive, D: and E: are partitions, and F: is the CD-ROM drive. The CD-
ROM drive is usually the last drive letter. In most situations, the
hard drive is the C: drive, and a CD-ROM or other disc drive is the D:
drive.
 FILES SYSTEM

A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information,


settings, or commands used with a computer program. A computer
has three types of files: application files, data files, and system files.
In a GUI (graphical user interface), such as Microsoft Windows, files
display as icons related to the program that opens the file. For
example, all PDF (Portable Document Format) icons appear the
same and open in Adobe Acrobat or the reader associated with PDF
files. If a program is associated with a file, double-clicking the icon
opens it in the default program.
 DIRECTORIES

A directory is a hierarchical structure that organizes files and other


resources on a computer or network. Directories are also known as
folders or drawers.

Here are some things to know about directories:


 Structure
Directories use a tree-like structure with parent and child nodes to
represent the relationships between files and folders.

 Purpose
Directories help users locate specific data, applications, or services
within a system.
 Navigation
Users can navigate through the directory structure using commands or
graphical interfaces provided by their operating system or application.
 Directory entries
Each directory entry contains a file or subdirectory name and an index
node reference number (i-node number).
 Deleting a directory
To delete a folder, right-click it and then choose "Delete". Windows
will warn you before allowing you to delete the folder, and sometimes
will force you to delete all of the files inside first.

 MEMORY

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to


store data/information and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a
data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and
output can be stored here.

Characteristics of Computer Memory


 It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.
 It is semiconductor memories.
 It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
 A computer system cannot run without primary memory.

Types of Computer Memory


In general, computer memory is of three types:
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory
Now we discuss each type of memory one by one in detail:
1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is
used to store data and programs or instructions during computer
operations. It uses semiconductor technology and hence is commonly
called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:

 RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile


memory stores information based on the power supply. If the
power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data and
information on this memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up
or start the computer. It temporarily stores programs/data which
has to be executed by the processor. RAM is of two types:

o SRAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits


of this memory are capable of retaining their state as long
as the power is applied. This memory consists of the
number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has
less access time and hence, it is faster.
o D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and
transistors and stores the data as a charge on the
capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It
needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few
milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.

 ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-


volatile memory stores information even when there is a power
supply failed/ interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store
information that is used to operate the system. As its name refers
to read-only memory, we can only read the programs and data that
is stored on it. It contains some electronic fuses that can be
programmed for a piece of specific information. The information
stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent
memory. ROM is of four types:
o MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-
programmed collection of data or instructions were the
first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that
works in this way.

o PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only


memory is modifiable once by the user. The user purchases
a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the
required contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be
erased once written.

o EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only


Memory): EPROM is an extension to PROM where you can
erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays
for nearly 40 minutes.

o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only


Memory): Here the written contents can be erased
electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up
to 10,000 times. Erasing and programming take very little
time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any area in an
EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.

2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-
volatile memory and used to store a large amount of data or
information. The data or information stored in secondary memory is
permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot
access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the
auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then
the CPU can access it.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory


 It is a slow memory but reusable.
 It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
 It is cheaper than primary memory.
 The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
 A computer system can run without secondary memory.
 In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the
power is off.

Types of Secondary Memory


1. Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic
film with a thin, magnetic coating on it that is used for magnetic
recording. Bits are recorded on tape as magnetic patches called
RECORDS that run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are
recorded concurrently. Each track has one read/write head, which
allows data to be recorded and read as a sequence of characters. It
can be stopped, started moving forward or backward, or rewound.

2. Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a circular metal or a plastic plate


and these plates are coated with magnetic material. The disc is used
on both sides. Bits are stored in magnetized surfaces in locations
called tracks that run in concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to
break tracks into pieces.
Hard discs are discs that are permanently attached and cannot be
removed by a single user.

3. Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written


to and read. It is reasonably priced and has a long lifespan. The optical
disc can be taken out of the computer by occasional users.

Types of Optical Disks


CD – ROM
 It’s called compact disk. Only read from memory.
 Information is written to the disc by using a controlled laser beam
to burn pits on the disc surface.
 It has a highly reflecting surface, which is usually aluminium.
 The diameter of the disc is 5.25 inches.
 16000 tracks per inch is the track density.
 The capacity of a CD-ROM is 600 MB, with each sector storing 2048
bytes of data.
 The data transfer rate is about 4800KB/sec. & the new access time
is around 80 milliseconds.

WORM-(WRITE ONCE READ MANY)


 A user can only write data once.
 The information is written on the disc using a laser beam.
 It is possible to read the written data as many times as desired.
 They keep lasting records of information but access time is high.
 It is possible to rewrite updated or new data to another part of the
disc.
 Data that has already been written cannot be changed.
 Usual size – 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch diameter.
 The usual capacity of 5.25 inch disk is 650 MB,5.2GB etc.

DVDs
 The term “DVD” stands for “Digital Versatile/Video Disc,” and there
are two sorts of DVDs:
o DVDR (writable)
o DVDRW (Re-Writable)
 DVD-ROMS (Digital Versatile Discs): These are read-only memory
(ROM) discs that can be used in a variety of ways. When compared
to CD-ROMs, they can store a lot more data. It has a thick
polycarbonate plastic layer that serves as a foundation for the other
layers. It’s an optical memory that can read and write data.
 DVD-R: DVD-R is a writable optical disc that can be used just once.
It’s a DVD that can be recorded. It’s a lot like WORM. DVD-
ROMs have capacities ranging from 4.7 to 17 GB. The capacity of 3.5
inch disk is 1.3 GB.
3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the
CPU run faster. Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a
buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the
most frequently.

Advantages of Cache Memory


 It is faster than the main memory.
 When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
 It stores data in temporary use.

 STORAGE DEVICES
A hardware device which can be used to store digital data and
applications which may be in the form of images, video, audio, etc.
is called a storage device.

Types of Computer Storage


The computer storage unit is divided into three parts. Given below are
details about the three types of computer storage:

1. Primary Storage: This is the direct memory which is accessible to the


Central Processing Unit (CPU).

 This is also known as the main memory and is volatile.


 This is temporary. As soon as the device turns off or is rebooted, the
memory is erased
 It is smaller in size
 Primary storage comprises only of Internal memory
 Examples of primary storage include RAM, cache memory, etc.

2. Secondary Storage: This type of storage does not have direct


accessibility to the Central Processing Unit.

 The input and output channels are used to connect such


storage devices to the computer, as they are mainly external
 It is non-volatile and larger storage capacity in comparison
to primary storage
 This type of storage is permanent until removed by an
external factor
 It comprises of both internal and external memory
 Examples of secondary storage are USB drives, floppy disks,
etc.

3. Tertiary Memory: This type of storage is generally not considered to


be important and is generally not a part of personal computers.

 It involves mounting and undoubting of mass storage data


which is removable from a computer device
 This type of storage holds robotic functions
 It does not always require human intervention and can
function automatically

 PRINTER

A printer is a device that accepts text and graphics output from a


computer, and it transfers this information to paper, sheets.
Printers can print any information that has been passed to it,
whether it be Text, Numbers or Images. It depends on the type of
printer that what quality or color the printed matter would be.

Qualities of Printers
 Color: Colored printers can print in both i.e, colored and black-and-
white. Hence, colored printers are more expensive than normal
printers.
 Resolution: Printer’s resolution is usually measured in dpi(dots per
inch). Expensive printers have resolutions of about 550 to 600 dpi.
 Speed: For printing a good amount of stuff you need to have a fast
printer. Hence, speed is an important factor while considering
printers.
 Memory: It is also an important factor for printers as having enough
memory will result in good speed and better performance.
Type of Printers
Depending upon the printing methods and the quality of images
produced, printers are of two major types:
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
This type of printer works with paper via direct contact with an ink
ribbon. It has similar mechanisms as of typewriter.
Examples of Impact Printer are Daisy-Wheel Printers, Dot -Matrix
Printers, Line Printers, etc.
1. Daisy-Wheel Printers: Daisy wheel printing is a mechanical impact
printing technology. It is called daisy-wheel because its printing
mechanism looks like a daisy. Its speed is usually 25-50 characters per
second.
2. Dot-Matrix Printers: The Dot-Matrix printers uses 9 to 24 pin print
heads depending upon the quality print required. 24 pin printers
produce more clarity that 9 pins dot-matrix printer. More number of
pins results in more clarity. Usually inexpensive and speed ranges
between 100 and 550 characters per second.
3. Line Printers: Line Printers (also called line-at-a-time printers) ,as
the name suggests it can print whole line at once. Speed ranges
somewhere between 1,000 to 6,000 lines per minute.

Non-Impact Printers
Non-Impact Printers do not need to touch the ink ribbon to print the
documents. Maintenance of Non-Impact printers is easier than Impact
printers.
Examples of non impact printer are Inkjet printers, Laser Printers and

etc.1. Inkjet Printers: The inkjet printers are the most common and

widely used printers in both professional and domestic settings. It is

popular due to its numerous advantages and very few drawbacks.

Advantages of Inkjet printers


 Capable of printing highly detailed and photo elastic prints.
 Small footprints
 Environment friendly
 Compact Design
 Versatile
 Best Picture and Image quality
Disadvantages of Inkjet Printers
 Higher cost per page than laser printers
 Less Reliable
 Slow print speed
2. Laser Printers: Laser Printers were developed by Xerox in 1960s.
The majority of laser printers use light, photoreceptor belts, and
photosensitive drums. During print, the laser will scan page line by
line. The most accepted writing method is black and white lasers,
which print content in black text.
Advantages of Laser Printers
 Cost-effective than inkjet printers.
 High print speed.
 Expandable with paper trays, finishes, etc.
 High paper capacity.
Disadvantages of Laser Printers
 Large footprints.
 High voltage usage.
3. LED Printers: LED Printers are quite similar to Laser Printers, but it
uses LED instead of laser to create pictures/images. LED printers are
considered are more efficient and reliable than laser printers.
Advantages of LED Printers
 Efficient
 Reliable
 Cheaper than laser printers.

 NUMBER SYSTEM
Number System is a method of representing numbers on the
number line with the help of a set of Symbols and rules. These
symbols range from 0-9 and are termed as digits. Let’s learn about
the number system in detail, including its types, and conversion.
Types of Number System
The four common types of Number System are:
1. Decimal Number System
2. Binary Number System
3. Octal Number System
4. Hexadecimal Number System

Binary Number System


The binary number system uses only two digits: 0 and 1. The numbers
in this system have a base of 2. Digits 0 and 1 are called bits and 8 bits
together make a byte. The data in computers is stored in terms of bits
and bytes. The binary number system does not deal with other
numbers such as 2,3,4,5 and so on. For example: 100012, 1111012,
10101012 are some examples of numbers in the binary number system.
Octal Number System
The octal number system uses eight digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 with the
base of 8. The advantage of this system is that it has lesser digits when
compared to several other systems, hence, there would be fewer
computational errors. Digits like 8 and 9 are not included in the octal
number system. Just like the binary, the octal number system is used in
minicomputers but with digits from 0 to 7. For example, 35 8, 238, and
1418 are some examples of numbers in the octal number system.

Decimal Number System


The decimal number system uses ten digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9 with
the base number as 10. The decimal number system is the system that
we generally use to represent numbers in real life. If any number is
represented without a base, it means that its base is 10. For example,
72310, 3210, and 425710 are some examples of numbers in the decimal
number system.
Hexadecimal Number System
The hexadecimal number system uses sixteen digits/alphabets:
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and A,B,C,D,E,F with the base number as 16. Here, A-
F of the hexadecimal system means the numbers 10-15 of the decimal
number system respectively. This system is used in computers to
reduce the large-sized strings of the binary system. For example, 7B316,
6F16, and 4B2A16 are some examples of numbers in the hexadecimal
number system.
Conversion of Number Systems
Conversion between numbers systems is quite an easy task. These are the
types of conversions that happen from one number system to another:

1. Decimal to Other Number Systems


2. Binary to Other Number Systems
3. Octal to Other Number Systems
4. Hexadecimal to Other Number Systems

1. Conversion from Decimal to Other Number Systems

 Decimal to Binary Conversion

 Decimal to Octal Conversion


 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

2. Conversion from Binary to Other Number Systems


 Binary to Decimal Conversion

 Binary to Octal Conversion


 Binary to Hexadecimal conversion

3. Conversion from Octal to Other Number Systems


 Octal to Decimal Conversion:
 Octal to Binary Conversion:

 Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

4. Conversion from Hexadecimal to Other Number


Systems
 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion:

 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion


 Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion:

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