Session 1: Fundamentals of Computer

Introduction

In today’s world we can see that almost all our work is being done with the help of computers.
Applications of computers can be seen in every electrical device nowadays whether it is television,
washing machine, watches, mobile phones and the list is endle ss. With the advancement in use
and technology, use of electronic devices has increased manifold. All this is possible because of the
ease and accuracy we get with these devices. Life has taken a fast pace and distances make hardly
any difference with the help of these machines. Let us have an insight to the basics of computers
in this chapter.

Evolution of Computers

Growth of the computer industry started with the need for performing fast calculations. The
manual method of computing was slow and prone to errors. So attempts were made to develop
faster calculating devices. The journey that started from the first calcul ating device i.e. Abacus has
led us today to extremely high speed calculating devices.

Computer is a term derived from the term ‘compute’ which means to calculate. Computer takes
input from the user, processes it and displays output. It is a device that works on a set of
instructions. It takes input from the user, processes the input according to the set of instructions
and gives the output.

Computer is an electronic device and works on electronic signals. The on and off signals denote 1
and 0 respectively. The binary language, also called machine language, works on two digits 0 and
1. Earlier computer experts used to work and give instruction in binary language only. Over the
years, many user friendly languages similar to simple English terms have develo ped and every
computer programmer need not learn and give instructions in binary language. Many user friendly
languages have been developed like C, C++, Java, JavaScript, Python and many more. These
languages are known as high level languages. Commands given in high level languages need to be
converted into binary language with the help of translators.

All this is achieved by an effective coordination of the components of the computer; broadly
categorized as hardware and the software. The term hardware re fers to the tangible components
of a computer that we can touch and feel like the keyboard, mouse, monitor. However, the term
software refers to a set of instructions and is intangible. Some examples of software are operating
systems, word processors, spreadsheets, online calculators etc.

The data and/or instructions given by the user to the machine are termed as Input and the result
generated by the machine after processing the data is the Output.
Characteristics of a Computer
Computer has become an inseparable part of our lives today because of following characteristics:

Speed : A remarkable quality of computers is their ability to process data and instructions at a very
high speed. A typical high-speed computer can perform about 3-4 mips (million instructions per
second). Note that this is different from the speed with which information can be sent to and from
a computer, which is normally measured in baud.

Versatility: is the ability of a computer to do a variety of jobs with ease. One moment you can type
a letter using any of the available word processing packages, and the other moment you can use
the same machine to do calculations yielding the salaries of employees of an organization.

Accuracy: Not only does the machine perform varied jobs with high speed, but also does them with
high precision and accuracy. Note that the errors that one may see in output produced by the
computer is not because of the machine, but because of either wrong entry of data or wrong
instructions given to compute. In computer terminology, this phenomena is often referred to as
GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out)

Diligence: Another noteworthy feature of computers is its ability to perform the same task
repeatedly over and over again without getting bored! For example a task of adding 1000 numbers
repeatedly for 10000 times if given to a computer, it would be able to do the task with the same
accuracy every time without complaining that it is being asked to do this job over and over again!!!

Memory: One of the notable features of a computer is its memory. However, the computer’s main
memory is volatile, i.e., it is lost when we switch off the computer.
Therefore, computers are provided another form of memory that does not fade away when it is
switched off. It is called secondary memory and is available in the form of floppy disks, pen drives,
portable hard disks.

Storage: Huge amounts of data and information can be stored in a computer for future retrieval.
The human memory is limited and fades away with time, which is not true for a computer.

Intelligence: In the early days, although computers possessed striking characteristics yet a
prominent drawback was that they are merely dumb machines which were programmed to
perform certain tasks. With the advent of artificial intelligence techniques, we now have machines
which can drive a car without a human driver or play chess against the best players.

Thus to summarize, this electronic device is capable of storing, processing huge amounts of data
and/or instructions with accuracy, diligence and high speed in an untiring manner.

Having seen the characteristics of a computer, now let us understand the way a computer works.

Components of a Computer
The computer is the combination of hardware and software. Hardware are the physical
components of a computer like motherboard, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc. while
software is the set of programs or instructions. Both hardware and software together make the
computer system function. Let us first have a look at the functional components of a computer.

Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output Cycle (IPO cycle). It needs certain
input, processes that input and produces the desired output. The input unit takes the input, the
central processing unit does the processing of data and the output unit produces the output. The
memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.

Let us discuss each component and its functionality :-

Input: To initiate the process, the computer needs to be told of the problem to be solved. For this
purpose, a set of instructions and data is provided through the input devices such as keyboard and
mouse. A set of instructions provided to the computer for doing a task is called a program.

Storage: There are basically two types of computer storage devices:

Primary Memory : Data stored in Primary Memory is directly accessible by the CPU. The inputs
received in the above steps are stored in the computer memory, called random access memory
(RAM). This storage is relatively fast and expensive as compared to the secondary storage.
Primary memory is directly connected to the CPU.
It is also called main memory, primary memory, or working memory of the machine.

Primary memory is of two types :

1. RAM ( Random Access Memory) : It is a primary volatile memory i.e. its data gets lost once
the power supply is stopped.

RAM is of two types : DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM ( Static Random Access
Memory.

DRAM SRAM
Used in main memory It is used in cache
Inexpensive Expensive
 Uses less power Uses more power
Slower than SRAM Faster than DRAM

2. ROM ( Read Only Memory) : It is generally used in startup operations of computer. It is a

non-volatile primary memory. Further it may be classified as : ROM, PROM(Programmable read
only memory), EPROM ( Erasable Programmable read only memory), EEPROM ( ElectricallyErasable
Programmable read only memory)

Secondary Storage: The memory which is external to the computer system forms the secondary
storage, for example, the magnetic tapes, compact disks, pen drives are all examples of the
secondary storage. These are not directly connected to the CPU.

Cache Memory : it is a very high speed memory which is used to cope -up with the high speed of
CPU. It is generally placed between CPU and Primary memory and acts as a buffer. It reduces the
average access time to data from the main memory and is comparatively expensive.

All the inputs, the intermediate results of computation carried out, and the final result are stored
in the memory of the computer. The computer also has another form of memory called secondary
memory. The programs and data not currently required are stored in secondary memory. It comes
in the forms such as a hard disk, pen drive, and CDROM. When required, for processing, these can
be retrieved and transferred to the main memory of the computer, Processing: The inputs provided
by the user are processed by the central processing unit as per the specified instructions. The result
of the processing is then either directed to the output devices or to a memory location for storage.

Control Unit: is responsible for coordination between the different units of a computer. It controls
the input, processing and output operations. For example, it coordinates with the peripheral
devices to accept the input or display the output. It is like a manager of all operations.

The manner in which the program is to be executed is managed by the control unit of the computer.
This entails deciding the address from which the instructions to be executed is to be picked up, the
memory location where the data or intermediate result is to be stored, etc.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): is responsible for actual processing of data. It retrieves the data from
the storage unit and performs the arithmetic calculations and/or comparisons on them and the
processed data is then sent back to the storage.
Output: The result of processing carried out by the computer is often directed to the display device
such as the monitor or printer. Other forms of devices are not uncommon, for example, the
computer may output music or video.

We have seen above that the input unit receives data, which is stored in the main memory, from
where it gets transferred to the Central Processing Unit and subsequently to the output device. The
Central Processing Unit has two modules; the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the Control Unit.

It also coordinates between memory and ALU by issuing timely signals. As mentioned above, the
storage unit has primary storage and secondary storage.

Block Diagram of Computer

Inside the Computer

There are various types of computers in the market these days, desktop personal computer –
popularly known as PC, laptop (also called notebook) – a small computer that can easily put on your
lap, tablet – a light computer of the size of a handbook, often used for working on the Internet.

If we look at a personal computer, from outside, it looks like a box (sometimes called CPU) that
contains CPU and hard disks, keyboard, mouse, monitor and speakers. The keyboard, mouse,
speakers, printer and other attachments like- scanner constitute the peripherals. The major
functionality in a computer is done in the Processing Unit. Processing Unit takes input and
processes it through the set of instructions ( given in the software) for that input and finally it gives
the results to the output unit.

Let’s now peep into the chassis of a processor!

Self Assessment Exercises:

1. Define the following :

a. Computer
b. Input Device
c. Output Device
d. Processor
2. Expand the following :
a. ALU
b. CPU
c. CU
d. RAM
e. EEPROM
f. ROM
g. DRAM
h. SDRAM
3. Answer the following
a. Explain the block diagram of computer
b. Describe the function of ALU and CU in short
c. Differentiate between RAM and ROM
d. Differentiate between input and output devices.
e. Explain the importance of Cache memory.
Session 2: Components of Computer

Motherboard: This is the main circuit board which holds together various components like CPU,
memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and
audio, and connections in the form of various ports (such as USB ports). It provides a connection to
every component of the computer.

Input – Output Devices

Input devices takes input from the user. The input may be in the form of text, image, sound, video
etc. a wide range of input devices have been devised for supporting varying types of input.
Following are examples of some of the input devices of computer:

- Keyboard: this is a standard input device and takes data in the form of text.
- Mouse ; it is a pointing input device.
- Webcam: it takes data in the form of video/image
- Scanner : it generally stores data in the form of graphics
- Microphone : it is used for voice input/ audio input
- Handwriting input board: it is used for giving input from

Output Devices: devices that are used to give output to the user. Output may be in the form of
visuals, text, audio, printout etc. different types of output devices are there to support various
types of output. Following are some examples of output devices:

- Monitor/ VDU ( Visual Display Unit) : it is the standard output device and is similar to a television
screen.
- Speaker : it is an output device that gives output in the form of an audio/ voice.
- Printer : it is also a very commonly known output device that gives output in the form of print out
also called as hard copy.
- Plotter : it is a large printer like device that is used to take print of large maps, architectural
designs.
- Projector : it is an output device that gives an enlarged view of the output on a large screen. It is
generally used for giving a view of output to a large audience.

CPU: The motherboard houses the main processor or the CPU (Central Processing Unit). CPU
executes the user instructions and coordinates amongst all other
units of the computer. Thus, it is primarily responsible for the
performance of the machine. Processors may be classified on the
on the basis of their speed, technology (dual-core, quad-core, octa-
core) and their manufacturers (Intel and AMD to name just two).
Speed of processors is usually measured in megahertz (MHz) – millions of instructions per
second; and gigahertz (GHz) – billions of instructions per second, is indicative of its power.

Power Supply Unit: This component of the computer is the one which converts the alternate
current power supply being received by homes or offices to the low voltage direct current
required by the machine.

Random Access Memory (RAM): This memory storage plays an important role in the functioning of
a computer system. Every time you start up the computer, the operating system (the system
software that manages the device’s interaction with the peripherals and the internal resources) is
loaded in the RAM. The program that needs to be executed at any point of time also needs to be
brought in the RAM. These days the PCs have around 8-32 GB RAM. More the RAM, more will be
the space for the programs leading to faster execution. Of course, everything in computers is
subject to some limits.

Hard Disk(HD): all the data stored in c drive of a computer

is basically stored in Hard Disk.. It is a magnetic secondary
storage device for storing the data and is fixed in the box
of a computer. The program which is to be executed is first
stored in the hard disk from where it is transferred to
RAM. On completion of work, the program is again saved
on the hard disk. These days external and portable hard
disks are also available in the market for large storage of
data.

It is usually characterized by the performance and its capacity. Memory capacity is specified in
terms of bytes. These days the capacity of a hard disk is expressed in terms of Gigabytes, Terabytes.

Pen drive/Flash drives : it is a small pen-like storage device of and can be accessed by directly
inserting in the USB(Universal Serial Bus) Port. It is very popular these days because of its small size
and easy accessibility.

Let us look into the hierarchy of the terms used to specify the capacity.

Every bit of information in computer is stored in terms of Bits

(Binary Digits) i.e. 0s and 1s

1 nibble = 4 bits

1 byte = 8 bits

1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB) 1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB)

 1024 MB = 1 Gigabyte (GB)

1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)

1024 TB = 1 Petabyte (PB)

1024 PB= 1 Exabyte(EB)

1024 EB = 1 Zettabyte(ZB)

1024 ZB = 1 Yottabyte (YB)

Optical Storage devices : Compact disc (CD) and Digital Video Disc(DVD) are examples of optical
storage devices. Capacity of a DVD is higher than that of a CD. Data in a Cd/DVD may be accessed
by inserting the disc in a Disc Drive. Following is the image of a CD/ DVD drive:

All these components need to work in coordination and this is accomplished by the operating
system. It initializes the system for our use. In the next section, we study the basics of operating
systems.

Self Assessment Exercises

1. Explain storage devices of a computer.

2. Describe secondary and primary storage devices of a computer
3. Write a short note on Optical storage devices 4. Explain the role of Power Supply Unit.
5. Explain various units to measure storage capacity of a device. Give the smallest unit.
6. Do the following conversions :
a.2 GB = ___________KB
b. 210 MB = _ _________B
Session 3: Operating System

Operating System :

Operating system is the software that acts as an interface between user and computer hardware.
A computer needs to communicate with both the hardware and software; to do this; it utilizes the
services of an Operating system. Examples of some popular operating system are Windows, Linux,
Unix, MS-DOS, SOLARIS, MAC OS, Gary Arlen Kildall is known as the father of operating system.

It also acts like a government which lays down policies for efficient utilization of the resources and
provides for effective coordination amongst the various components of a computer. Every
computer system whether it is an independent system like a desktop or a cell phone must have an
operating system for performing the core functionalities like accepting input from various input
devices, directing the output to the display, managing the files and directories, communicating with
hardware, and installing /uninstalling of peripheral devices.

Figure 1.7 : Operating System as an Interface Functions of an Operating system can

be broadly categorized as:

− Communication Manager

− Resource Management

− Process Management

− File Management

− Memory Management
Figure 1.8 presents the various functions of an operating system.

Figure : 1.8 Functions of Operating System

Communication Manager: Manages the communication needs of the system, be it communicating

with the peripheral devices or the internet, are addressed by the operating system. Each of the
peripheral devices like printer, mouse have unique characteristics and the computer needs to know
these unique properties, to interact with them. For this, the operating system uses special
programs called drivers which enable recognition of these devices and their properties.

Resource Management: The working of a computer system is predominantly dependent on how its
resources are being managed. The resources that we talk of here are - the memory of the computer,
the CPU time, files, secondary storage, input/output devices etc. The operating system handles the
allocation of all such resources, the priority in which these are allotted to the various processes to
get an optimum performance from the system. We discuss here the prime resource management.

Process Management: A process is a program currently executing in the memory or waiting for the
CPU. In a computer there are multiple processes in the system. The OS manages, controls,
schedules all the processes being executed in the computer. It decides which process gets the
processor and for how long.

Memory Management: For a process to be executed, it has to be loaded in the working memory
that is the RAM (Random Access Memory). The memory management component of an operating
system allocates memory to the processes in a dynamic manner that is allocated on demand and
released when not needed.

File Management: Operating system takes care of all the files and folders (directories) maintained
on the computer disk. The basic tasks that a user needs to perform on files are creation, renaming,
deletion, copying or moving of a file or folder. All the files stored in a computer system can be
located through the file system. Two main types of file system are
Details of files in a computer are stored and traced using a file system called FAT. FAT is used by
the operating system to keep a track of files on hard disk. Various FAT systems are named on the
basis of the number of bits used to store the data of FAT. For ex ample : FAT 16 uses 16 bits to store
data, FAT 32 uses 32 bits. Another system is NTFS (New Technology File system).

Types of Operating system

Operating systems can be classified in different ways; depending on various parameters.

Single-tasking and Multi-tasking

Single Task Operating System : such operating systems allow execution of only a single program at
any given instant.

Multi-Tasking operating system can execute more than one program simultaneously. The processor
time, in this case, is divided amongst various processes.

Single user and Multi-user

Single-user operating systems allow only one user to use the system. The desktop systems can be
classified as typical single user systems

Multi-user operating systems allow many users to access the system by maintaining an account of
all the registered users.

Real-Time Operating System

Operating systems which ensure that the response time is fixed are categorized as real -time
operating systems. They are intended for applications where data needs to be processed quickly,
without any significant delays. For example, an anti-aircraft missile system must fire as soon as it
receives a signal from the enemy aircraft, before it leaves the bomb and flies away.

Batch Processing Systems

In a batch processing system, similar jobs are clubbed together and submitted as a block to the
processor for execution. User intervention is minimal in such systems. The jobs are picked up one
by one and executed.

Exercises

Fill in the blanks

1. The unit used to measure the performance of a computer is ..................... .

2. Two main types of File system are ..................... and ..................... .

3. ________________ is the software that acts as an interface between user and the hardware.