SIGHT DISTNCE

• Sight distance available from a point is the actual

distance along the road surface, which a driver
from a specified height above the carriageway
has visibility of stationary or moving objects. OR
• It is the length of road visible ahead to the driver
at any instance.
Types of sight distance
• Stopping or absolute minimum sight
distance(SSD)
• Safe overtaking or passing sight distance (OSD)
• Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled
intersection.
• Intermediate sight distance
• Head light sight distance
Stopping sight distance:
• The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
should be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction.
Over taking sight distance:
• The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking
sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance.
Sight distance at intersection:
• Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly
unsignalised Intersection) has sufficient visibility to enable him to
take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with
another vehicle.
Intermediate sight distance:
• This is defined as twice the stopping sight
distance. When overtaking sight distance can not
be provided, intermediate sight distance is
provided to give limited overtaking opportunities
to fast vehicles.
Head light sight distance:
• This is the distance visible to a driver during night
driving under the illumination of the vehicle head
lights. This sight distance is critical at up-gradients
and at the ascending stretch of the valley curves.
 Stopping Sight Distance
• SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a
highway at any spot having sufficient length to
enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at
design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction.
It depends on:
• Feature of road ahead
• Height of driver’s eye above the road surface(1.2m)
• Height of the object above the road surface(0.15m)
 Criteria for measurement
•Height of driver’s eye above road surface (H)
•Height of object above road surface(h)

H
h

IRC
• H = 1.2m
• h = 0.15m
Factors affecting the SSD
• Total reaction time of driver
• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tyre
• Gradient of road
Total reaction time of driver:
• It is the time taken from the instant the object
is visible to the driver to the instant the brake
is effectively applied, it divide into types
1. Perception time
2. Brake reaction time
Perception time:
• it is the time from the instant the object comes on
the line of sight of the driver to the instant he
realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped.
Brake reaction time:
• The brake reaction also depends on several factor
including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problems and various other environment factor.
• Total reaction time of driver can be calculated by
“PIEV” theory
 “PIEV” Theory
Total reaction time of driver is split into four parts:
• P-perception
• I-intellection I-E

• E-Emotion
• V-Volition P V
perception
• It is the time required for the sensation received by the
eyes or ears to be transmitted to the brain through the
nervous system and spinal chord.
Intellection:
•It is the time required for understanding the situation.
Emotion:
• It is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and
disturbance such as fear, anger or any other emotional
feeling such as superstition etc, with reference to the
situation.
Volition:
• It is the time taken for the final action

Total reaction time of driver may be vary from 0.5 sec to 4

sec
 Analysis of SSD
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
distance and the braking distance.
Lag distance:
• It is the distance, the vehicle traveled during the reaction time
• If ‘V’ is the design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total reaction
time of the driver in seconds,

lag distance = v.t metres. Lag distance=0.278 V.t meters

Where “v” in m/sec Where “v” in Kmph,
t=2.5 sec T= time in sec=2.5 sec
Braking distance :
• It is the distance traveled by the vehicle after the
application of brake. For a level road this is
obtained by equating the work done in stopping
the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• work done against friction force in stopping the
vehicle is F x l = f W l, where W is the total weight
of the vehicle.
• The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec
will be ½ m. v²
 Braking distance= v²/2gf

SSD=lag distance + braking distance

SSD=0.278V.t + v²/254f
Table 2.6: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
Speed, kmph 30 40 50 60 ˃80
Longitudinal
coefficient of 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
friction

• Two-way traffic single lane road: SSD=2*SSD

• In one-way traffic with single or more lane or two-
way traffic with more than single lane: Minimum
SSD= SSD
Example-1
• Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design
speed of 50kmph for(a) two-way traffic on two lane
road (b)two-way traffic on single lane road
Example-2
• Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid
a head on collision of two cars approaching from
opposite direction at 90 and 60kmph.coefficient
friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50%, in either
case
Example-3
• Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a
descending gradient of 2% for design speed of 80
kmph, assume other data as per IRC specification.
 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

• The minimum distance open to the vision of the

driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of
opposite direction is known as the minimum
overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe
passing sight distance.
• The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the
distance measured along the centre of the road
which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the
road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m
above the road surface.
Factors affecting the OSD
• speeds of
 overtaking vehicle
 overtaken vehicle
 the vehicle coming from opposite direction, if
any.
• Distance between the overtaking and
overtaken vehicles.
• Skill and reaction time of the driver
• Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
• Gradient of the road
 Analysis of OSD
• Fallow the Fig. 4.14, p-96 of highway engineering by S.K. Khanna
and C.E.G. Justo
• d1 is the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle
“A” during the reaction time t sec of the driver
from position A1 to A2.
• D2 is the distance traveled by the vehicle A from A2
to A3 during the actual overtaking operation, in
time T sec.
• D3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C
from C1 to C2 during the over taking operation of
A, i.e. T sec.
• B is the overtaken or slow moving vehicle.
 Cont…
• B is the overtaken or slow moving vehicle moving
with uniform speed Vb m/sec or Vb Kmph;
• C is a vehicle coming from opposite direction at
the design speed V m/sec or V kmph
• The distance traveled by the vehicle A during this
reaction time is d1 and is between
the positions A1 and A2. this distance will be
equal to Vb.t meter
• where t is the reaction time of the driver in
second= 2 sec.
 OSD = d1+ d2+ d3
OSD = 0.28 Vb. t +0.28Vb .T + 2s + 0.28 V.T

S = SPACING OF VEHICLES = (0.2 V b+ 6)

T= √ 4x3.6s / A = √ 14.4s /A

If the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given

Vb=(V-16) kmph, where V= speed of overtaking vehicle in kmph

The minimum overtaking sight distance = d1+d2+d3 for

two-way traffic.
On divide highways and on roads with one way traffic
regulation, the overtaking distance = d1+d2 as no vehicle
is expected from the opposite direction.
 Overtaking Zones
• It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the
length of road visible ahead at every point is sufficient for
safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there
may be stretches where the safe overtaking distance can
not be provided. But the overtaking opportunity for
vehicles moving at design speed should be given at
frequent intervals. These zones which are meant for
overtaking are called overtaking zones.
• The minimum length of overtaking zone should be three
time the safe overtaking distance i.e., 3 (d1+d2) for one-
way roads and 3(d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads.
• Desirable length of overtaking zones is kept five times the
overtaking sight distance. i.e., 5(d1+d2) for one-way roads
and 5(d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads.
Example-1
The speed of the overtaking and overtaken
vehicle are 70 and 40 kmph, respectively on a
two way traffic road. If the accleration of
overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec²,
a) Calculate safe overtaking sight distance
b) Calculate the minimum and desirable length of overtaking
zone
c) Draw the neat-sketch of the overtaking zone and show the
position of the sign post.
Example-2
Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a
design speed of 96 kmph, assume all other data
suitable
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal
curve
 Horizontal Curves
• A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to
provide change in direction to the central line of a
road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve,
the centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards
through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
• P = W v²∕gR
• Where,
• P = centrifuge force, kg
• W = weight of the vehicle, kg
• R = radius of the circular curve, m
• v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
• g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec
 P=mv²/gR

h
A B
W F

b
 Cont…..
• P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor.
The centrifuge ratio is thus equal to v²∕gR
• The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has two effects
 Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer
wheels
 Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
Overturning effect
• The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when
Ph = Wb/2, or when P/W = b/2h. This means that there is
danger of overturning when the centrifugal when the
centrifugal ratio P/W or v²/gR attains a values of b/2h.
Transverse skidding effect
• P = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =fW
• Since P = f W, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to
‘f ‘. In other words when the centrifugal ratio
attains a value equal to the coefficient of lateral
friction there is a danger of lateral skidding.
• Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on
a horizontal curve, the centrifugal ratio should
always be less than b/2h and also ‘f’
• ‘f’ is less than b/2h.-The vehicle would skid and
not overturn
• b/2h is lower than ‘f’-The vehicle would overturn
on the outer side before skidding
 Superelevation
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal
force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the
pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope
throughout the length of the horizontal curve,
this transverse inclination to the pavement
surface is known as Superelevation or cant or
banking.
• The Superelevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio
of the height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width.
 E=eB

B
 Superelevation
Rv

≈ P(centrifugal force)

e
W 1 ft


W sin   f  W cos   WV 2

sin    WV 2
cos 
 gR  gR
Analysis of Superelevation
• The force acting on the vehicle while moving on a
circular curve of radius R meters, at speed of v
m/sec are
• The centrifugal force P = Wv²/gR acting horizontal
outwards through the centre of gravity, CG
• The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically
downloads through the CG
• The frictional force developed between the wheels
and the pavement counteractions transversely
along the pavement surface towards the centre
of the curve
 Superelevation cont…

 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f  W c o s   s in    c os 
 gR  gR
OR ta n   f  V 2
1  f ta n   Dividing Cos α on both sides
gR
OR e f 
V 2
1  f e  (1-fe)=1-0.15x.o7=0.99≈ 1
gR

OR V 2
R 
g f  e

OR V 2
e f  V2
gR
OR e f 
127 R
V in m/Sec V in kmph
R in ‘m’ R in ‘m’
 Cont…
• e = rate of Superelevation = tan Ө
• f = design value of lateral friction coefficient =
0.15
• v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
• R = radius of the horizontal curve, mg =
acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec²
 Maximum Superelevation
• In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less
dense materials like straw or cotton, the centre of gravity of the
loaded vehicle will be relatively high and it will not be safe for such
vehicles to move on a road with a high rate of Superelevation.
Because of the slow speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly
small in the case of bullock carts. Hence to avoid the danger of
toppling of such loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to limit
the value of maximum allowable Superelevation.
• Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of
Superelevation in plan and rolling terrains and is snow bound
areas as 7.0 %.
• On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevation upto
10% .
• On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be
necessary to limit the maximum Superelevation to 4.0 %.
 Minimum Superelevation

• From drainage consideration it is

necessary to have a minimum cross to
drain off the surface water. If the
calculated Superelevation is equal to or
less than the camber of the road surface,
then the minimum Superelevation to
be provided on horizontal curve may be
limited to the camber of the surface.
 Design ofSuperelevation
• Step-1: The Superelevation for 75 percent of design speed (v
m/sec/kmph) is calculated neglecting the friction.
V 2
e 
(0.75V ) 2
e 
1 2 7 R 225 R
• Step-2: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07 the value
so obtained is provided. If the value of ‘e’ as step-1 exceeds 0.07 then
provides maximum Superelevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with step-
3 or 4.
• Step-3: Check the coefficient of friction of friction developed for the
maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value of design speed.
V 2
f   0 .0 7
127R
• If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15 the Superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as
given in step -4.
 Cont….
• Step-4 The allowable speed (Va m/sec. or Va Kmph)
at The curve is calculated by considering the design
coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum
Superelevation.
• e+f=0.07+0.15=va²/127R
• If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher
than the design speed, then the design is adequate
and provides a Superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
• If the allowable speed is less than the design speed,
the speed is limited to the allowed speed Va kmph
calculated above and Appropriate warning sign and
speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict
and regulate the speed.
 Attainment of superelevation

Split-up into two parts::

• Elimination of crown of the cambered section
•Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Elimination of crown of the cambered section
1st Method: Outer edge rotated about the crown
 Attainment of superelevation
Disadvantages
• Small length of road – cross slope less than
camber
• Drainage problem in outer half

2nd Method: Crown shifted outwards

Disadvantages
• Large negative superelevation on outer half
• Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along shifted crown
 Attainment of superelevation

Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

1st Method: Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge and raising
the outer edge each by half the total amount of superelevation)

Advantages
• Earthwork is balanced
• Vertical profile of the C/L remains unchanged
Disadvantages
• Drainage problem: depressing the inner edge
below the general level
 Attainment of superelevation

2nd Method: Rotation about the Inner edge (raising both the centre as well as
outer edge – outer edge is raised by the total amount of superelevation)

Advantages
• No drainage problem
Disadvantages
• Additional earth filling
• C/L of the pavement is also raised (vertical alignment of
the road is changed)
 Example-1
• The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design
speed is 50kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction
is 0.15.
 Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop
 Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is
provided.
 Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and
outer wheels should be equal.

Example-2:
• A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal
curve of radius 480m. Design the rate of superelevation for
mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the
pavement be raised with respect to the centre line , if the
pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line.
Exapmle-3:
• Design the super elevation for a horizontal
highway curve of radius 500m and speed
100kmph
Example-4
• The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There
is horizontal curve of radius 200m on a certain
locality. Calculate the superelevation needed
to maintain this speed.
 Radius of Horizontal Curve

• The ruling minimum radius of the curve for ruling

design speed v m/sec. or V kmph is given by.

V2
RRulling 
127(e  f )
• According to the earlier specifications of the IRC,
the ruling minimum radius of the horizontal curve
was calculated from a speed value, 16 kmph
higher than the design speed i,e., (V+16) kmph.
 Example-1
• Calculate the values of ruling minimum and
absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve
of a national highway in plane terrain. Assume
ruling design speed and minimum design
speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
• On horizontal corves, especially when they are not of
very large radii, it is common to widen the pavement
slightly more than the normal width,
• Widening is needed for the following reasons :
The driver experience difficulties in steering around the
curve.
The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel
don’t track the front wheel. known as ‘Off tracking’
For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not
to follow the central path of the lane, but to use the outer
side at the beginning of the curve.
While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve
there is psychological tendency to maintain a greater
clearance between the vehicle for safety.