ANALOG AND DIGITAL

COMMUNICATIONS

LECTURE NOTES

B.TECH
(III YEAR – V SEM)
(2024-2025)

Prepared by
Mr. Ankur Saxena

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Dewan V S Institute of Engineering & Technology (DVSIET),
Meerut
 B.Tech (Electronics & Communication Engineering)

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1) To analyze and design various continuous wave Amplitude modulation and demodulation
techniques.
2) To understand the concept of Angle modulation and demodulation, and the effect of noise
on it.
3) To attain the knowledge about the functioning of different AM, FM Transmitters and
Receivers.
4) To analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques (Analog and Digital Pulse
modulation)
5) To understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Technique, Baseband transmission and
Optimum Receiver.

UNIT I
Elements of communication system and its limitations, Amplitude modulation and detection,
Generation and detection of DSB-SC, SSB and vestigial side band modulation, carrier
acquisition AM transmitters and receivers, Superhetrodyne Receiver, IF amplifiers, AGC
circuits, Frequency Division multiplexing.

Unit II
Angle Modulation: Basic definition, Narrow-Band and wideband frequency modulation,
transmission bandwidth of FM signals, Generation and detection of frequency modulation,
Generation and detection of Phase Modulation.
Noise: External noise, internal noise, noise calculations, signal to noise ratio.

Unit III
Pulse Modulation: Introduction, sampling process, Analog Pulse Modulation Systems, Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse width modulation (PWM) and Pulse Position Modulation
(PPM).
Waveform coding Techniques: Discretization in time and amplitude, Quantization process,
quantization noise, Pulse code Modulation, Differential Pulse code Modulation, Delta
Modulation and Adaptive Delta Modulation.

Unit IV
Digital Modulation Techniques: Types of digital modulation, waveforms for amplitude,
frequency and phase shift keying, coherent and non-coherent methods for the generation of
ASK, FSK and PSK. Comparisons of above digital modulation techniques.

Unit V
Time Division Multiplexing: Fundamentals, Electronic Commutator, Bit/byte interleaving, TI
carrier system, synchronization and signaling of TI, TDM and PCM hierarchy, synchronization
techniques.
Introduction to Information Theory: Measure of information, Entropy & Information rate,
channel capacity, Hartley Shannan law, Huffman coding, shannan Fano coding.
B.Tech (Electronics & Communication Engineering)

TEXTBOOKS:
1) Analog and Digital Communications – Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2005.
2) Electronics Communication Systems-Fundamentals through Advanced-Wayne Tomasi,
5th Edition, 2009, PHI.
3) Communication Systems-Simon Haykin, 2nd Edition.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1) Principles of Communication Systems - Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha,
3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2008.
2) Analog and Digital Communication – K. Sam Shanmugam, Willey, 2005.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completing this course, the student will be able to
1) Analyze and Design various continuous wave Amplitude modulation and demodulation
techniques.
2) Understand the concept of Angle modulation and demodulation, and the effect of noise on
it.
3) Attain the knowledge about the functioning of different AM, FM Transmitters and
Receivers.
4) Analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques (Analog and Digital Pulse
modulation)
5) Understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Technique, Baseband transmission and
Optimum Receiver.

Dewan V S Institute of Engineering & Technology (DVSIET), Meerut

 UNIT-I
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Introduction to Communication System

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between individuals

through a medium.

Communication can also be defined as the transfer of information from one point in space
and time to another point.

The basic block diagram of a communication system is as follows.

 Transmitter: Couples the message into the channel using high frequency signals.
 Channel: The medium used for transmission of signals
 Modulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum of a signal to a
frequency range in which more efficient transmission can be achieved.
 Receiver: Restores the signal to its original form.
 Demodulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum back to the
original baseband frequency range and reconstructing the original form.

Modulation:

Modulation is a process that causes a shift in the range of frequencies in a signal.

• Signals that occupy the same range of frequencies can be separated.

• Modulation helps in noise immunity, attenuation - depends on the physical

medium. The below figure shows the different kinds of analog modulation schemes that are

available
Modulation is operation performed at the transmitter to achieve efficient and reliable
information transmission.

For analog modulation, it is frequency translation method caused by changing the appropriate
quantity in a carrier signal.

It involves two waveforms:

 A modulating signal/baseband signal – represents the message.

 A carrier signal – depends on type of modulation.

• Once this information is received, the low frequency information must be removed from the
high frequency carrier. •This process is known as “Demodulation”.

Need for Modulation:

 Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium so,
modulation is used to convey (baseband) signals from one place to another.
 Allows frequency translation:
o Frequency Multiplexing
o Reduce the antenna height
o Avoids mixing of signals
o Narrow banding
 Efficient transmission
 Reduced noise and interference

Types of Modulation:

Three main types of modulations:

Analog Modulation

 Amplitude modulation
Example: Double sideband with carrier (DSB-WC), Double- sideband
suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC), vestigial
sideband (VSB)
  Angle modulation (frequency modulation & phase modulation)
Example: Narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM), Wideband frequency
modulation (WBFM), Narrowband phase modulation (NBPM), Wideband phase
modulation (NBPM)

Pulse Modulation

 Carrier is a train of pulses

 Example: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse width modulation (PWM) ,
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Digital Modulation

 Modulating signal is analog

o Example: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulation (DM), Adaptive
Delta Modulation (ADM), Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM),
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) etc.
 Modulating signal is digital (binary modulation)
o Example: Amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency Shift Keying (FSK),
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) etc

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high

frequency carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal
(Information).

The carrier amplitude varied linearly by the modulating signal which usually consists of a
range of audio frequencies. The frequency of the carrier is not affected.

 Application of AM - Radio broadcasting, TV pictures (video), facsimile transmission

 Frequency range for AM - 535 kHz – 1600 kHz
 Bandwidth - 10 kHz

Various forms of Amplitude Modulation

• Conventional Amplitude Modulation (Alternatively known as Full AM or Double

Sideband Large carrier modulation (DSBLC) /Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)

• Double Sideband Suppressed carrier (DSBSC) modulation

• Single Sideband (SSB) modulation

• Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation

Time Domain and Frequency Domain Description

It is the process where, the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to that of the
message signal.

Let m (t) be the base-band signal, m (t) ←→ M (ω) and c (t) be the carrier, c(t) = A c
cos(ωct). fc is chosen such that fc >> W, where W is the maximum frequency component of
m(t). The amplitude modulated signal is given by

s(t) = Ac [1 + kam(t)] cos(ωct)

Fourier Transform on both sides of the above equation

S(ω) = π Ac/2 (δ(ω − ωc) + δ(ω + ωc)) + kaAc/ 2 (M(ω − ωc) + M(ω + ωc))

ka is a constant called amplitude sensitivity.

kam(t) < 1 and it indicates percentage

modulation.

Amplitude modulation in time and frequency domain

Single Tone Modulation:

Consider a modulating wave m(t ) that consists of a single tone or single frequency
component given by
Expanding the equation (2), we get

Frequency Domain characteristics of single tone AM

Power relations in AM waves:
Consider the expression for single tone/sinusoidal AM wave

The ratio of total side band power to the total power in the modulated wave is given by
This ratio is called the efficiency of AM system

Generation of AM waves:
Two basic amplitude modulation principles are discussed. They are square law modulation
and switching modulator.

Switching Modulator

Switching Modulator
The total input for the diode at any instant is given by

When the peak amplitude of c(t) is maintained more than that of information
signal, the operation is assumed to be dependent on only c(t) irrespective of m(t).
When c(t) is positive, v2=v1since the diode is forward biased. Similarly, when
c(t) is negative, v2=0 since diode is reverse biased. Based upon above operation,
switching response of the diode is periodic rectangular wave with an amplitude unity
and is given by
 The required AM signal centred at fc can be separated using band pass filter.
The lower cut off-frequency for the band pass filter should be between w and fc-w
and the upper cut-off frequency between fc+w and 2fc. The filter output is given by
the equation
Detection of AM waves
Demodulation is the process of recovering the information signal (base band) from the
incoming modulated signal at the receiver. There are two methods, they are Square law
Detector and Envelope Detector

Envelope Detector

It is a simple and highly effective system. This method is used in most of the commercial AM
radio receivers. An envelope detector is as shown below.

Envelope Detector

During the positive half cycles of the input signals, the diode D is forward biased and
the capacitor C charges up rapidly to the peak of the input signal. When the input signal falls
below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and the capacitor C discharges through
the load resistor RL.

The discharge process continues until the next positive half cycle. When the input
signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the diode conducts again and the
process is repeated.

The charge time constant (rf+Rs)C must be short compared with the carrier period,
the capacitor charges rapidly and there by follows the applied voltage up to the positive peak
when the diode is conducting.That is the charging time constant shall satisfy the condition,

Where ‘W’ is band width of the message signal. The result is that the capacitor voltage or
detector output is nearly the same as the envelope of AM wave.

Advantages and Disadvantages of AM:

Advantages of AM:

 Generation and demodulation of AM wave are easy.

 AM systems are cost effective and easy to build.

Disadvantages:
 AM contains unwanted carrier component, hence it requires more
transmission power.
 The transmission bandwidth is equal to twice the message
bandwidth.

To overcome these limitations, the conventional AM system is modified at the cost of

increased system complexity. Therefore, three types of modified AM systems are discussed.

DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier) modulation:

In DSBC modulation, the modulated wave consists of only the upper and lower side
bands. Transmitted power is saved through the suppression of the carrier wave, but the
channel bandwidth requirement is the same as before.
SSBSC (Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier) modulation: The SSBSC modulated wave
consists of only the upper side band or lower side band. SSBSC is suited for transmission of
voice signals. It is an optimum form of modulation in that it requires the minimum
transmission power and minimum channel band width. Disadvantage is increased cost and
complexity.

VSB (Vestigial Side Band) modulation: In VSB, one side band is completely passed
and just a trace or vestige of the other side band is retained. The required channel bandwidth
is therefore in excess of the message bandwidth by an amount equal to the width of the
vestigial side band. This method is suitable for the transmission of wide band signals.

DSB-SC MODULATION

DSB-SC Time domain and Frequency domain Description:

DSBSC modulators make use of the multiplying action in which the modulating
signal multiplies the carrier wave. In this system, the carrier component is eliminated and
both upper and lower side bands are transmitted. As the carrier component is suppressed, the
power required for transmission is less than that of AM.

Consequently, the modulated signal s(t) under goes a phase reversal , whenever the message
signal m(t) crosses zero as shown below.
 Fig.1. (a) DSB-SC waveform (b) DSB-SC Frequency Spectrum

The envelope of a DSBSC modulated signal is therefore different from the message
signal and the Fourier transform of s(t) is given by
Generation of DSBSC Waves:

Balanced Modulator (Product Modulator)

A balanced modulator consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in

a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave as shown in the following
block diagram. It is assumed that the AM modulators are identical, except for the sign
reversal of the modulating wave applied to the input of one of them. Thus, the output of
the two modulators may be expressed as,

Hence, except for the scaling factor 2ka, the balanced modulator output is equal to
the product of the modulating wave and the carrier.

Ring Modulator

Ring modulator is the most widely used product modulator for generating DSBSC wave and
is shown below.
The four diodes form a ring in which they all point in the same direction. The
diodes are controlled by square wave carrier c(t) of frequency fc, which is applied
longitudinally by means of two center-tapped transformers. Assuming the diodes are
ideal, when the carrier is positive, the outer diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased where
as the inner diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased, so that the modulator multiplies the
base band signal m(t) by c(t). When the carrier is negative, the diodes D1 and D2 are
reverse biased and D3 and D4 are forward, and the modulator multiplies the base band
signal –m(t) by c(t).

Thus the ring modulator in its ideal form is a product modulator for
square wave carrier and the base band signal m(t). The square wave carrier can be
expanded using Fourier series as

From the above equation it is clear that output from the modulator consists
entirely of modulation products. If the message signal m(t) is band limited to the
frequency band − w < f < w, the output spectrum consists of side bands centred at fc.

Detection of DSB-SC waves:

Coherent Detection:

The message signal m(t) can be uniquely recovered from a DSBSC wave s(t) by
first multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass filtering the
product as shown.
 It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or synchronized, in
both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave c(t) used in the product modulator to
generate s(t). This method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or
synchronous detection.

Fig.6.Spectrum of output of the product modulator

From the spectrum, it is clear that the unwanted component (first term in the
expression) can be removed by the low-pass filter, provided that the cut-off frequency of
the filter is greater than W but less than 2fc-W. The filter output is given by

The demodulated signal vo(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) when the phase error ϕ
is constant.

Costas Receiver (Costas Loop):

Costas receiver is a synchronous receiver system, suitable for demodulating DSBSC

waves. It consists of two coherent detectors supplied with the same input signal,
 Fig.7. Costas Receiver

The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same as the carrier
frequency fc. The detector in the upper path is referred to as the in-phase coherent detector or
I-channel, and that in the lower path is referred to as the quadrature-phase coherent detector
or Q-channel.

These two detector are coupled together to form a negative feedback system designed
in such a way as to maintain the local oscillator synchronous with the carrier wave. Suppose
the local oscillator signal is of the same phase as the carrier
c(t) = Accos(2πfct) wave used to generate the incoming DSBSC wave. Then we find that the
I-channel output contains the desired demodulated signal m(t), where as the Q-channel
output is zero due to quadrature null effect of the Q-channel. Suppose that the
local oscillator phase drifts from its proper value by a small angle ϕ radians. The I-channel
output will remain essentially unchanged, but there will be some signal
appearing at the Q-channel output, which is proportional to
sin(𝜙) ≈ 𝜙 for small ϕ.

This Q-channel output will have same polarity as the I-channel output for one
direction of local oscillator phase drift and opposite polarity for the opposite direction of local
oscillator phase drift. Thus by combining the I-channel and Q-channel outputs in a phase
discriminator (which consists of a multiplier followed by a LPF), a dc control signal is
obtained that automatically corrects for the local phase errors in the voltage-controlled
oscillator.
Introduction of SSB-SC
Standard AM and DSBSC require transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message
bandwidth. In both the cases spectrum contains two side bands of width W Hz,
each. But the upper and lower sides are uniquely related to each other by the virtue of
their symmetry about the carrier frequency. That is, given the amplitude and phase
spectra of either side band, the other can be uniquely determined. Thus if only one side
band is transmitted, and if both the carrier and the other side band are suppressed at the
transmitter, no information is lost. This kind of modulation is called SSBSC and spectral
comparison between DSBSC and SSBSC is shown in the figures 1 and 2.

Frequency Domain Description

side band is transmitted; the resulting SSB modulated wave has the spectrum shown in figure
6. Similarly, the lower side band is represented in duplicate by the frequencies
below fc and those above -fc and when only the lower side band is transmitted, the
spectrum of the corresponding SSB modulated wave shown in figure 5.Thus the
essential function of the SSB modulation is to translate the spectrum of the modulating
wave, either with or without inversion, to a new location in the frequency domain.
The advantage of SSB modulation is reduced bandwidth and the elimination of
high power carrier wave. The main disadvantage is the cost and complexity of its
implementation.

Generation of SSB wave:

Frequency discrimination method

Consider the generation of SSB modulated signal containing the upper side band
only. From a practical point of view, the most severe requirement of SSB generation
arises from the unwanted sideband, the nearest component of which is separated from the
desired side band by twice the lowest frequency component of the message signal. It
implies that, for the generation of an SSB wave to be possible, the message spectrum
must have an energy gap centered at the origin as shown in figure 7. This requirement
is naturally satisfied by voice signals, whose energy gap is about 600Hz wide.
 The frequency discrimination or filter method of SSB generation consists of a
product modulator, which produces DSBSC signal and a band-pass filter to extract the
desired side band and reject the other and is shown in the figure 8.

Application of this method requires that the message signal satisfies two conditions:
1. The message signal m(t) has no low-frequency content. Example: speech, audio, music.
2. The highest frequency component W of the message signal m(t) is much less than the
carrier frequency fc.

Then, under these conditions, the desired side band will appear in a non-overlapping
interval in the spectrum in such a way that it may be selected by an appropriate filter.

In designing the band pass filter, the following requirements should be satisfied:
1.The pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency range as the spectrum of the
desired SSB modulated wave.

2. The width of the guard band of the filter, separating the pass band from the stop
band, where the unwanted sideband of the filter input lies, is twice the lowest frequency
component of the message signal.

When it is necessary to generate an SSB modulated wave occupying a frequency band

that is much higher than that of the message signal, it becomes very difficult to design an
appropriate filter that will pass the desired side band and reject the other. In such a situation
it is necessary to resort to a multiple-modulation process so as to ease the filtering
requirement. This approach is illustrated in the following figure 9 involving two stages of
modulation.

The SSB modulated wave at the first filter output is used as the modulating wave
for the second product modulator, which produces a DSBSC modulated wave with a
spectrum that is symmetrically spaced about the second carrier frequency f2. The
frequency separation between the side bands of this DSBSC modulated wave is
effectively twice the first carrier frequency f1, thereby permitting the second filter to
remove the unwanted side band.

Time Domain Description:

The time domain description of an SSB wave s(t) in the canonical form is given
by the equation 1.
 Following the same procedure, we can find the canonical representation for an SSB
wave
s(t) obtained by transmitting only the lower side band is given by

Phase discrimination method for generating SSB wave:

Time domain description of SSB modulation leads to another method of SSB

generation using the equations 9 or 10. The block diagram of phase discriminator
is as shown in figure 15.
 The phase discriminator consists of two product modulators I and Q, supplied
with carrier waves in-phase quadrature to each other. The incoming base band signal m(t)
is applied to product modulator I, producing a DSBSC modulated wave that contains
reference phase sidebands symmetrically spaced about carrier frequency fc.

The Hilbert transform mˆ (t) of m (t) is applied to product modulator Q, producing a

DSBSC modulated that contains side bands having identical amplitude spectra to those of
modulator I, but with phase spectra such that vector addition or subtraction of the two
modulator outputs results in cancellation of one set of side bands and reinforcement of
the other set.

The use of a plus sign at the summing junction yields an SSB wave with
only the lower side band, whereas the use of a minus sign yields an SSB wave with only
the upper side band. This modulator circuit is called Hartley modulator.

Demodulation of SSB Waves:

Introduction to Vestigial Side Band Modulation
Vestigial sideband is a type of Amplitude modulation in which one side band is
completely passed along with trace or tail or vestige of the other side band. VSB is a
compromise between SSB and DSBSC modulation. In SSB, we send only one side
band, the Bandwidth required to send SSB wave is w. SSB is not appropriate way of
modulation when the message signal contains significant components at extremely low
frequencies. To overcome this VSB is used.

Vestigial Side Band (VSB) modulation is another form of an amplitude-modulated

signal in which a part of the unwanted sideband (called as vestige, hence the name vestigial
sideband) is allowed to appear at the output of VSB transmission system.

The AM signal is passed through a sideband filter before the transmission of SSB
signal. The design of sideband filter can be simplified to a greater extent if a part of the other
sideband is also passed through it. However, in this process the bandwidth of VSB system is
slightly increased.

Generation of VSB Modulated Signal

VSB signal is generated by first generating a DSB-SC signal and then passing it
through a sideband filter which will pass the wanted sideband and a part of unwanted
sideband. Thus, VSB is so called because a vestige is added to SSB spectrum.

The below figure depicts functional block diagram of generating VSB modulated
signal

Figure: Generation of VSB Modulated Signal

A VSB-modulated signal is generated using the frequency discrimination method, in

which firstly a DSB-SC modulated signal is generated and then passed through a sideband-
suppression filter. This type of filter is a specially-designed bandpass filter that distinguishes
VSB modulation from SSB modulation.the cutoff portion of the frequency response of this
filter around the carrier frequency exhibits odd symmetry, that is, (fc-fv)≤|f|≤(fc+fv).

Accordingly the bandwidth of the VSB signal is given as

BW=(fm+fv) Hz
Where fm is the bandwidth of the modulating signal or USB, and fv is the bandwidth
of vestigial sideband (VSB)

Time domain description of VSB Signal

Mathematically, the VSB modulated signal can be described in the time-domain as

s(t)= m(t) Ac cos(2πfct) ± mQ(t) Ac sin(2πfct)

where m(t) is the modulating signal, m Q(t) is the component of m(t) obtained by passing the
message signal through a vestigial filter, Ac cos(2πfct) is the carrier signal, and Ac sin(2πfct)
is the 90o phase shift version of the carrier signal.

The ± sign in the expression corresponds to the transmission of a vestige of the upper-
sideband and lower-sideband respectively. The Quadrature component is required to partially
reduce power in one of the sidebands of the modulated wave s(t) and retain a vestige of the
other sideband as required.

Frequency domain representation of VSB Signal

Since VSB modulated signal includes a vestige (or trace) of the second sideband, only a part
of the second sideband is retained instead of completely eliminating it. Therefore, VSB signal
can be generated from DSB signal followed by VSB filter which is a practical filter.

The below figure shows the DSB signal spectrum, the VSB filter characteristics, and the
resulting output VSB modulated signal spectrum.
Bandwidth Consideration in TV Signals

An important application of VSB modulation technique is in broadcast television. In

commercial TV broadcasting system, there is a basic need to conserve bandwidth.

 The upper-sideband of the video carrier signal is transmitted upto 4MHz without any
attenuation.
 The lower-sideband of the video carrier signal is transmitted without any attenuation
over the range 0.75 MHz (Double side band transmission) and is entirely attenuated at
1.25MHz (single sideband transmission) and the transition is made from one o
another between 0.75MHz and 1.25 MHz (thus the name vestige sideband)
 The audio signal which accompanies the video signal is transmitted by frequency
modulation method using a carrier signal located 4.5 MHz above the video-carrier
signal.
 The audio signal is frequency modulated on a separate carrier signal with a frequency
deviation of 25 KHz. With an audio bandwidth of 10 KHz, the deviation ratio is 2.5
and an FM bandwidth of approximately 70 KHz.
 The frequency range of 100 KHz is allowed on each side of the audio-carrier signal
for the audio sidebands.
 One sideband of the video-modulated signal is attenuated so that it does not interfere
with the lower- sideband of the audio carrier.

Advantages of VSB Modulation

VSB transmission system has several advantages which include

 Use of simple filter design

 Less bandwidth as compared to that of DSBSC signal
 As efficient as SSB
 Possibility of transmission of low frequency components of modulating signals

Facts to Know

VSB is mainly used as a standard modulation technique for transmission of video signals in
TV signals in commercial television broadcasting because the modulating video signal has
large bandwidth and high speed data transmission
Envelope detection of a VSB Wave plus Carrier
Comparison of AM Techniques:

Applications of different AM systems:

 Amplitude Modulation: AM radio, Short wave radio broadcast

 DSB-SC: Data Modems, Color TV’s color signals.
 SSB: Telephone
 VSB: TV picture signals