CE102: Environmental Studies

Module III: Ecology and Sustainable Development – Ecosystems,

Natural cycles, Biodiversity, Man and environment
(No. of contact hours: 02);

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 Ecosystem: Sustaining Life on Earth
 Ecosystem is defined as structural and functional unit of the biosphere,
comprising living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) factors and their interaction.
 Interactions of many organisms functioning together in ecosystems as well as
 Physical and chemical environments
 These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles
(matter) and energy flows.

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 Ecosystems and its types

Natural
Ecosystems
Nature
Artificial
Ecosystems
Temporary
Types of Ecosystems
Duration
Ecosystems Permanent
Ecosystems
Small
Ecosystems
Size
Large
Ecosystems

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Ecosystems and its types
Natural Ecosystem
A natural ecosystem is an interaction between the environment and the
organisms living in the environment. It occurs naturally in nature and
requires no human activity for its functioning.

Desert River Forest

Pond Lake 5
Ecosystems and its types
Artificial Ecosystem
Artificial ecosystems are human-made structures where biotic and abiotic
components are made to interact with each other for survival. It is not self-
sustaining and can not perish without human help.

Poultry farm Dam

Aquarium Agriculture field Zoo 6

Difference between Natural and Artificial Ecosystem

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Difference between Natural and Artificial Ecosystem

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Basic Characteristics of Ecosystems

The macrominerals are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride,

and sulfur. The trace minerals are iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride,
and selenium.
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 Basic Characteristics of Ecosystems
 Ecosystem Processes:
 Cycling of chemical elements (Mass Flow )
 Flow of energy (Energy Flow)

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Basic Characteristics of Ecosystems
 At its simplest an ecosystem community will have:
 At least one species that is a producer
 Another species that is a decomposer
 Plus a fluid medium
 Ecosystem: For complete recycling of chemical elements, several species
must interact i.e.
 Photosynthetic organisms must produce sugar from carbon dioxide
and water and then,
 From sugar and inorganic compound they make other organic
compounds (protein, woody tissue)
 Decomposers must then act to get back the produced into its
respective inorganic compounds

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Functional Attributes of Ecosystems
 Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a systematic way.
 It receives energy from the sun and passes it on through various biotic
components and in fact, all life depends upon this flow of energy.
 Besides energy, various nutrients and water are also required for life
processes which are exchanged by the biotic components within
themselves and with their abiotic components within or outside the
ecosystem.
 The biotic components also regulate themselves in a very systematic
manner and show mechanisms to encounter some degree of
environmental stress.
 The major functional attributes of an ecosystems are as follows:
 (i) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure
 (ii) Energy flow
 (iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
 (iv) Primary and Secondary production
 (v) Ecosystem development and regulation 12
 Food Chain
 Food chain
 Linkage of who feeds on whom
 The sequence of eating and being
eaten in an ecosystem is known as
food chain
 Energy, chemicals and some
compounds are transferred from
creature to creature along food
chains or food webs (more
complex)
 Grouped by trophic level

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 Food Chain
(a) First trophic level: Use energy from the sun and carbon dioxide from the air to
photosynthesizes called autotrophs (b) Second trophic level: Organisms that feed on autotrophs
called herbivores (c) Third trophic level: Feed directly on herbivores called carnivores (meat
eaters) (d) Forth trophic level: Carnivores that feed on third-level carnivores (e) Decomposers-
feed on waste and dead organisms of all trophic levels

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Food Webs
 The different food chains are inter
connected at various trophic level to
develop a food web.
 Food webs are never straight.
 Food web is formed due to
interlinking of food chains.
 A food web in the ecosystem brings
alternate source of food.
 The complex food web gives better
stability to the ecosystem.

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Significance of Food Chains and Food Webs
1. The study of the food chain helps to understand the
feeding relationships and the interaction between
the organisms and the ecosystem.
2. It helps to understand the mechanism of energy flow
and the process of circulation of matter in an
ecosystem.
3. The food chains also help in maintaining and
regulating the population size of different animals
and thus maintain the ecological balance.
4. It helps to understand the flow of toxins along the
different trophic levels resulting in biomagnification.
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Biomagnification
Biomagnification or biological magnification is the process of
accumulation of certain chemicals in living organisms to a concentration
higher than that occurring in the inorganic, non-living environment.

 The contaminants might be heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and

pesticides such as polychlorinated biphenyls and DDT.
 These substances are taken up by the organisms through the food they
consume.
 When the organisms in the higher food chain feed on the organisms in
the lower food chain containing these toxins, these toxins get
accumulated in the higher organisms.

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Rachel Carson

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 Ecological Pyramids
 Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem,
starting with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the
apex is known as an ecological pyramid.

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Ecological Pyramids
 Pyramid of Numbers: It
represents the number of
individual organisms at each trophic
level. May be upright or inverted.
 Pyramid of Biomass: It is based
upon the total biomass (dry matter) Grassland Forest
at each trophic level in a food chain.
The pyramid of biomass can also be
upright or inverted.
 Pyramid of Energy: The amount of
energy present at each trophic level
is considered for this type of
pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives
the best representation of the
trophic relationships and it is always Parasitic food chain
upright.
Pyramid of Numbers 24
Ecological Pyramids

Grassland Pond

Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of Energy

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Ecosystem Energy Flow
 All life requires energy for the ability to do work
 Energy enters an ecosystem by two pathways:
 Energy fixed by organisms
 Transfer of heat energy by air, water, soil and
living things
 Ecosystem energy flow
 Movement of energy through an ecosystem
from the external environment through a series
of organisms and back to the external
environment.
 Energy Efficiency and Transfer Efficiency
 Trophic-level efficiency
 Ratio of production of one trophic level to the
production of the next trophic level
 1–3% in natural ecosystems
 10% may be maximum
 90% of all energy lost as heat
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Fundamental laws governing energy flow
First law of thermodynamics

It states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It can only be
transferred from one form to another. Hence the total energy of the universe
is constant. During photosynthesis, there is a transformation of light energy
(sunlight) into chemical energy (food).

Second law of thermodynamics

According to this law, the energy transformation is not hundred percent

efficient. So, some energy is dissipated as heat energy into the surroundings,
while transforming from one form to another. Hence while energy gets
transferred from one trophic level to another, some part of the energy is lost
as heat, which cannot be reused. Therefore, energy flow in an ecosystem is
unidirectional or one way flow from producers through herbivores to
carnivores. So the energy can be used only once and cannot be recycled.

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Fundamental laws governing energy flow
Law of 10% energy transfer in ecosystem
The 10 percent law is followed in the energy transfer between trophic levels.
This law states that only 10 percent of the energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next higher trophic level. The remaining 90 percent
energy is lost as heat or is used in metabolic activities. This law was proposed
by Linderman in 1942.

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Example: A plant receives 20000 kJ of energy from the
sun. Calculate the amount of energy transferred to the
tiger in the food chain as given below:

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Natural Cycles: Bio-geochemical cycles
 Besides energy flow, the other important functional attribute
of an ecosystem is nutrient cycling.
 Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen,
phosphorus etc. move in circular paths through biotic and
abiotic components and are therefore known as
biogeochemical cycles.
 Water also moves in a cycle, known as hydrological cycle.

 Carbon cycle
 Nitrogen cycle
 Phosphorous cycle

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Carbon Cycle

 Carbon has a gaseous phrase

 Enters atmosphere (CO2 and CH4) through respiration, fires and diffusion
 Removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
 Carbon occurs in the ocean in several forms
 Dissolved CO2, carbonate and bicarbonate, marine organisms and their products,
CaCO3
 Enters the ocean by
 Simple diffusion then dissolves,
Carbon enters the biota through photosynthesis and then returned by respiration or fire 31
Nitrogen Cycle
 Free N2 makes up 78%
of atmosphere
 But most organisms
can’t use it directly
 Relatively unreactive
element must be
converted to NO3- or
NH4+
 Performed by bacteria
 Nitrogen fixation -
process of converting
atmospheric N to NO3-
or NH4+
 Denitrification - process of releasing fixed N back to molecular N

 N combines with O at high temperatures

 Oxides of N a source of air pollution
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Phosphorous Cycle

 P one of the major nutrients required for life

 Often a limiting factor for plant and algal growth

 Does not have a gaseous phase

 Rate of transfer slow
 Enters biota through uptake as phosphate by plants, algae and some bacteria
 Returns to soil when plants die or is lost to oceans via runoff
 Returned to land via ocean feeding birds (guano)
 Guano deposits major source of P for fertilizers
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Assignment
 Why is the carbon cycle important?
 What is Nitrification and Denitrification?
 What is Eutrophication? Causes of Eutrophication?
 Guano deposits?

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Biodiversity
 On dividing the whole earth’s mass into 10
billion parts, it is only in one part where life
exists and the astounding variety of living
organisms numbering somewhere around 50
million species are all restricted to just about a
kilometer- thick layer of soil, water and air.

 Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living
organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. From the driest
deserts to the dense tropical rainforests and from the high snow-clad mountain
peaks to the deepest of ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvellous spectrum of
forms, size, colour and shape, each with unique ecological inter-
relationships.

 In the Convention of Biological Diversity (1992), biodiversity has been

defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part.
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Biodiversity
Levels of Biodiversity

 Units of biodiversity may range from the genetic level within a

species to the biota in a specific region and may extend up to the great
diversity found in different biomes.

 Genetic diversity

 Species diversity

 Ecosystem diversity

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Biodiversity
Genetic diversity
 Genetic biodiversity is related to the genes of living organism and is the
diversity within the specific species.
 Genes are responsible for transmission of certain factors or traits from
one generation to the next within the same species, so genetic biodiversity
has occurred within the same specific species.
 It is also called as within species diversity.
 Genes give unique characters or features to each individual species.

For example, human beings are the Homo sapiens and, besides all, the
homo sapiens are not exactly alike.
There are some differences in shape, size, body colour, hair style, etc.
and these differences make them unique identity.
Each person is genetically unique and that’s why
different peoples have different faces, features and
characters, they are all humans but genetically different
and that is genetic biodiversity in human.
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Biodiversity
Species biodiversity

 Species biodiversity occurs among different type of species (more than

one different species) in a particular area or location.

 Different organisms have different features and characters and that is

why they cannot reproduce or interbred, therefore they are considered as
different species.

 The organism that can be reproduced with each other is considered to be as

single species.

Species richness?
Species evenness?
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Biodiversity
Ecosystem diversity

 Ecosystem variety refers to the differences in ecosystems found within a

given geographic area, as well as their overall impact on human life and
the environment.

 The range of ecosystems found in a biosphere is also referred to as

ecological diversity.

Alpha Biodiversity?
Beta Biodiversity?
Gamma Biodiversity?

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India: a Mega-diversity Nation
 India is one of the 18 mega-
diversity countries in the world in
terms of both the hotspots and the
relative biodiversity with respect to
the endemic flora and fauna varieties.
 The Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt. of India (2000)
records 47,000 species of plants
and 81,000 species of animals
which is about 7% and 6.5%
respectively of global flora and
fauna.
 A large proportion of the Indian
Biodiversity is still unexplored.

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India: a Mega-diversity Nation

 There are about 93 major wetlands,

coral reefs and mangroves which need
to be studied in detail.
 Indian forests cover 64.01 million
hectares having a rich biodiversity of
plants in the Trans-Himalayan, north-
west, west, central and eastern
Himalayan forests, western ghats,
coasts, deserts, Gangetic plains, deccan
plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar and
Lakshadweep islands.
 Due to very diverse climatic conditions
there is a complete rainbow spectrum
of biodiversity in our country.

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What Threatens Biodiversity?
 Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution.
 However, the rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow
process, keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444 million
years.
 The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years
of human civilization.
 Therefore the species are becoming endangered and finally extinct from the
biosphere which is the serious threat to the biodiversity with major impacts
on the ecological balance. The major causes of this phenomenon are:
 Extinction: A natural process
 HIPPO: Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population
(of humans), and Overharvesting
 Loss of Habitats
 Poaching
 Man-wildlife conflicts
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Man and Environment
 The environment needs to be protected and preserved
with special emphasis on wildlife and plants.
 However, humans intervention especially in form of
poaching and habitat destruction has lead to severe
damage to the ecological biodiversity.
 Therefore, minimal human intervention (with respect to
pollution of ecosystems) is beneficial both form the ecosystem as
well as environment. Trade-off must be done between
development and ecosystem/environmental
conservation
 Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs calls for a sense of
responsibility with respect to our actions
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Sustainable Development

 “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of

the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Report,
United Nations World Commission on Environment and
Development, 1987)
 Environmental, economic and social well-being for today
and tomorrow!
 Environmental protection and waste management (rather
waste recycling) are must to achieve sustainable
development

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Obsolescent “Frontier” Civilization

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Sustainable Civilization

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Links between UN United Nations Millennium
Development Goals and Environment

UN MDG Goal(s) Links to environment

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Livelihood strategies and food security
depend on healthy environment
Achieve universal primary education Time spent colleting fuel and water by
children
Reduce child mortality Water-borne diseases kill 3 million
people in developing countries
Improve maternal health Indoor air pollution
Combat major diseases 1/5th of the total burden of disease in
developing countries may be associated
with environmental risk factors
Ensure environmental sustainability Environmental degradation must be
reversed
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Sustainability!

Adopted by the UNGA on 25th September, 2015 at UN HQ in New York 48