ECOSYSTEM

Ecology is the study of various ecosystems which is the relationship

between organisms and their surroundings (living and non-living).

Ecosystem
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. It is derived from Greek
word "study of home". Ecosystem is a group of organisms interacting
among themselves and with the environment exchanging its energy and
matter.
E.g, forest, desert etc.

Biome
Biome is a small ecosystem within another ecosystem having dominant
species with similar lifestyle, climatic conditions and physical structure
etc.,

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem has two major components (a) abiotic and (b) biotic.

(a) Abiotic Components

Non-living components of ecosystem (physical and chemical) form the abiotic community.
(i) Physical components: It includes energy, climate, raw materials and living space.
 E.g. Air, water, soil, sunlight
(ii) Chemical components: They are the sources of nutrients.
(a) Organic substances E.g. proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
(b) Inorganic substances E.g. (C, N, O, P, K, H) and (Al, Co, Cu, Zn).

(b) Biotic Components

Living members in a community form the biotic community.

(i) Autotrophic/Producers/Self-feeders: They prepare their own

food with the help of chlorophyll, sunlight, water and
carbondioxide. E.g. plants, trees.

(ii)Heterotrophic / Consumers/ other-feeders: They lack chlorophyll

and do not prepare their own food but depends on the producers for their
food.
(a) Macro consumers: Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
(b) Micro consumers/ Saprotrophs: Decomposers (bacteria, fungi)

Classification/members of biotic components

Based on their source of food
1. Autotrophs/ Producers: Prepare their food through photosynthesis
using chlorophyll, CO2 and sunlight.
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6+ 6O2 + 6H2O

2. Heterotrophs/Consumers: They do not make their food but depend

on producers for their food.
(A) Primary consumers/Herbivores. Depend on plants for their food. E.g. Insects, rats.
(B) Secondary consumers/Primary carnivores: They feed on primary consumers.
E.g. Frogs, cat, snakes.
(C) Tertiary consumers/Secondary carnivores: They feed on secondary
consumers e.g. lions, tigers

Grass Rat Cat Tiger

3. Decomposers: They feed on dead plants and animals and decompose

them into simpler compounds releasing inorganic nutrients. These are
again utilized by plants with other organic substances for the synthesis
of food.
e.g. Bacteria, fungi.

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
 Its main function is to allow the flow of energy and nutrients.
Types of function
1. Primary function/ production: It is manufacturing of starch by photosynthesis.
2. Secondary function/ production: It is the distribution of energy to all
consumers in the form of food which is stored by them.
3. Tertiary function: The dead systems (plants and animals) are
decomposed by decomposers thereby initiating the third function called
"cycling".

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Solar energy is the main energy on earth‟s surface. About 1% of this is
used by plants for photosynthesis. They convert this into chemical energy
part of which is used for their growth and remaining is passed onto
consumers.
Thus, energy enters ecosystem through photosynthesis and travels
through different feeding or trophic levels at the rate of 10% and the rest
90% is lost in the form of heat. This indicates that the energy flow is
greatly reduced at each trophic levels from producers to carnivores. The
energy flow is unidirectional i.e energy from sun never return back to sun.
Energy flow through an atmosphere in an ecosystem is governed by laws
of thermodynamics I law of thermodynamics - Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, but it can only be converted from one form to
another.
II law of thermodynamics - Whenever there is transformation of energy,
there is loss of energy in the form of heat. The loss of energy takes place
through respiration, running, hunting etc. Relationship between structure

and function .ECOLOGICAL SUCCE

 ECOLOGICAL SUCCeSSION
The progressive replacement of one community by another till the
development of a stable community in a particular area is called
ecological succession.
Stages of Ecological succession
1. Pioneer Community:
The first group of organisms which establish their community in an area
is called pioneer Community.
2. Seres or Seral Stage:
The various developmental stages of a
community is called 'seres'. Community:
Group of plants or animals living in an area.
Types of ecological succession
1. Primary succession: Involves gradual establishment of biotic communities on a lifeless
ground.
2. (a) Hydrarch: Establishment starts in watery area (lake, pond)
3. (b) Xerarch: Establishment starts in dry land (desert, rocks)
4. Secondary succession: Involves the establishment of biotic
communities in an area, where some type of biotic community is already
present.
Process of ecological succession
Ecological succession takes place in the following steps:
1. NUDATION: It is the development of bare land without any life form.
2. INVASION: It is the establishment of one/more species on a bare land
through migration followed by establishment.
(a) MIGRATION: Migration of seeds by wind, water and birds.

Types of food chain

1. Grazing food chain:

Found in grass land and pond ecosystems. It starts with green plants and
goes to the decomposer/detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.

2. Detritus food chain:

Found in grassland and forest ecosystems. It starts with dead organic

matter and goes to decomposer food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.
 Trophic levels
The various steps through which food energy passes in an ecosystem is called trophic levels.

Tl T2 T3 T4 T5

T1 - Green plants/producer
T2 -
Herbivores/pri
mary
consumers T3 -
Carnivores/seco
ndary consumers
T4 - Tertiary
consumers
T5 – Decomposers

FOOD WEB
Definition: The interlocking pattern of various food chains which are
linked together in an ecosystem is called food web. Different types of
organisms are connected at different trophic levels so that there are number
of opportunities of eating and being eaten at any trophic level.

Functions:
• Maintains the stability of ecosystems.
• Maintains the nutritional balance in an ecosystem.
• Control the population size of species in an ecosystem.
• Provide alternate food source.

Energy flow in a food web

Significance of food chains and food webs
1. Food webs and food chains play an important role in ecosystem as
energy and nutrient flow takes place through them.
2. They maintain and regulate the population size of different trophic
levels thereby maintaining ecological balance.
3. They have property of biomagnification. The passing of non-
biodegradable material from one trophic level to another causing its
concentration to increase and this is called biomagnification. E.g.,
Biomagnification of DDT
The concentration of DDT sprayed on plants increases along the food
chain through phytoplankton to zooplanktons and then goes to fish,
animals and human beings. Thus concentration of DDT is magnified in
birds, animals and humans damaging the egg shells in birds and cell
tissues in humans. As DDT is fat soluble its accumulation in human body
is easier and cannot be removed easily.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Definition: The graphical representation of structure and function
of trophic levels of an ecosystem is called ecological pyramid.
In an ecological pyramid the producers forms the base level and the tertiary
consumer occupies the apex level.

It represents the number of individual organisms present in each trophic

level. e.g., Grassland ecosystem
Here, the producers are grasses which are small in size and large in
numbers. So, they occupy the lower most level of the pyramid. The
primary consumers (rats) occupy the second trophic level as its number is
lower compared to that of grass. The secondary consumers (snakes) which
are even larger in size and smaller in number form the third level. The
tertiary consumers (eagles) occupy the top layer as the numbers of it is the
least.

1. Pyramids of energy
 It represents the amount of energy present in each trophic level. At every
successive tropic level there is a heavy loss of energy (about 90%) in the form
of heat. Thus at each next higher tropic level only 10% of energy is
transferred.

2. Pyramids of energy

It represents the total amount of biomass (mass or weight of biological

material or organism) present in each trophic level.
e.g., Forest ecosystem
The trees in forest ecosystem are the producers and they are maximum in
number contributing to a huge biomass. The next tropic levels are the
herbivores (insects, birds) and then carnivores (snakes, foxes). The
topmost level is the tertiary consumers (tiger, lion) which are few and
hence having low biomass.
FOREST ECOSYTEM
Forest consists of densely growing trees which cover 40% of world's land and 19% of Indian
land.
Types of forests and their features
Depending on the climatic conditions forests are classified into the following types:
(a) Tropical rain forest: They are found near the equator. They are
characterized by high temperature. Trees like teak and sandal and
animals like lion and tiger are found in these forests.
(b) Tropical deciduous forest: They are found a little away from
equator. They have warm climate and rain only during monsoon. Trees
like maple, oak and animals like deer and fox are found in these forests.
(c) Tropical shrub forest: They have dry climate for long time. Have
small deciduous trees and shrubs and animals like deer, fox, etc.
(d) Temperate rain forest: They are found in temperate areas with
adequate rain.Coniferous trees like fir, pines and animals like squirrels,
fox are found here.
(e) Temperate deciduous forest: These are found in areas with
moderate temperatures. Trees like oak, hickory and animals like deer, fox
are found in these forests.
Characteristics of forests ecosystem
1. They have warm climate and adequate rainfall, which generates number of ponds, lakes
etc.
2. Forests maintain rainfall and climate.
3. Forests support many wild animals and protect biodiversity.
4. Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter which support the growth of trees.
5. As sunlight penetration is poor, conversion of organic matter into nutrients is very fast.

Structure and function of forest ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: e.g., Temperature, light, rain and minerals.
They are the inorganic and organic substances found in soil and atmosphere.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Trees, shrubs
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Insects
(ii) Secondary consumers: Birds, snakes
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Tiger, lion
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi. Rate of decomposition of dead
matter in tropical and subtropical forest is more than in temperate
forest.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands are large areas of grass with scattered trees which occupies
about 20% of world's land.
1.19.1 Types and features of grasslands
1. Tropical Grassland: they are found near borders of tropical rain
forests. They have high temperature and moderate rainfall (40 to 100cm).
They are also called Savanna-type. They have tall grasses and shrubs and
animals like zebra, giraffe.
2. Temperate grassland: They are found in centres of continents, on flat,
sloped hills. They have cold winters and hot summers. Intense grazing and
summer fires do not allow shrubs or trees to grow in this grassland.
3. Polar grassland: They are found in arctic polar region and have severe
cold and strong wind with snow and ice. In summers several annual plants
grow and animals like arctic wolf, arctic fox is found here.
Characteristics of grassland ecosystem
1. Grassland ecosystem is plain land occupied by grasses.
2. Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter.
3. Since there are tall grasses, it is an ideal place for grazing animals.
4. It is characterized by low or even rainfall.
Structure and function of grassland ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: e.g., Nutrients (C, H, O ,N ,P , S) supplied by
CO2, H2O, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Grasses, shrubs
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Cows, deer
(ii) Secondary consumers: Snakes, lizards
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Eagles
(c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Deserts occupy about 35% of world's land. The atmosphere is dry and hence a poor insulator.
Types and features of desert
1. Tropical desert: They are found in
(i) Africa: Sahara desert
(ii) India: Thar desert
They have few species and wind-blown sand dunes are common.
2. Temperate
desert: They are
found in South
California:
Majave desert
They have very hot summer and very cool winter.
3. Cold desert: They are found
in China: Gobi desert They
have cold winters and warm
summers. Characteristic
features of desert ecosystem
1. The desert air is dry and climate is hot.
2. Annual rainfall is less than 25cm.
3. The soil is poor in nutrients and organic matter.
4. Vegetation is poor.

Structure and function of desert ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: Temperature, rainfall, sunlight
The temperature is very high and rainfall and nutrient cycling are very low.

2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Shrubs, bushes, some grass
In desert there are succulent plants like cacti which have water inside them
and waxy outer coating to protect form sun.
(b) Consumers: Squirrels, mice, reptiles.
These animals dig holes in the ground to live and come out at night for food.
Most of the desert animals can extract water from seeds.
(c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria
Desert has poor vegetation with low amount of dead organic matter. They
are decomposed by few bacteria and fungi.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
This deals with water bodies. The major types of organisms found in
aquatic environments are determined by water salinity.
Types of aquatic ecosystems: Based on the salinity it is classified into 2 types as
(i) Fresh water ecosystem: Ponds, lakes, rivers, streams
(ii) Marine/ salt water ecosystem: Oceans, estuaries

1. Fresh water ecosystem:

POND ECOSYSTEM
Characteristic features of pond ecosystem
1. Pond is temporary, only seasonal.
2. It is stagnant fresh water body.
3. Pond gets polluted easily due to limited amount of water.
Structure and Function of Pond ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, water, organic and inorganic compounds.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: They are of 2 types
(i) Phytoplankton: These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely
float on the water surface. e.g., Algae, pandorina.
(ii) Microphytes: These are large floating plants and submerged plants. e.g., Hydrilla, wolfia.
(b) Consumers: (i) Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): These are
microscopic animals which float freely on the water surface. e.g.,
Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates.
Zooplanktons are found along with phytoplankton sans they feed on them.
(ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Insects like water beetles and small fish.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Large fish like game fish.
(c) Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, flagellates.
LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Lakes are supplied water by rainfall, melting snow and streams.
Types of lakes
1. Oligotrophic lakes: They have low nutrient concentrations.
2. Eutrophic lakes: They are over nourished by nutrients like N and P.
3. Dystrophic lakes: They have low pH, high humic content and brown waters.
4. Volcanic lakes: They receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions.
5. Meromictic lakes: They are rich in salts.
6. Artificial lakes: They are created due to construction of dams.

Zones of lake
Depending upon their distance from the shore, a lake consists of 4 distinct zones.
1. Littoral zone: It is the top layer of the lake. It has shallow water.
2. Limnetic zone: It lies below the littoral zone, where effective penetration
of sunlight takes place.
3. Profundal zone: This is the deep open water, where it is too dark.
4. Benthic zone: This layer is the bottommost layer of the lake.

Characteristic feature of lake ecosystem

1. Lake is shallow fresh water body.
2. It is a permanent water body with large water resources.
3. It is useful for irrigation and drinking purpose.

Structure and function of Lake Ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, proteins and lipids.
 2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: These are the green plants which may be submerged, free
floating and amphibious plants. e.g., Phytoplankton, algae
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers (Zooplankton): Ciliates, protozoans.
(ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Insects and small fishes.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Large fish like game fish.
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi

RIVER/STREAM ECOSYSTEM
The running water of a river or stream is well oxygenated, because it
absorbs oxygen from air. The numbers of animals are low in river or
stream.
Characteristic features of river or stream ecosystem
1. It is fresh water and free flowing water system.
2. Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content is more.
3. River deposits large amount of nutrients.

Structure and function of river ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, pH, nutrients.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses.
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Water insects, snails
(ii) Secondary consumers: Birds and mammals
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi

MARINE/OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
Oceans cover more than two thirds of earth's surface. It supplies a vast
variety of sea products and drugs. It has high concentration of salts and
minerals.
Zones of Oceans
The oceans have two major life zones.
(i) Coastal zone: It is relatively nutrient rich, shallow water and has high
productivity because of high nutrients and sunlight.
(ii) Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean and is vertically divided
into 3 regions. (a) Euphotic zone: It receives abundant light and shows high
photosynthetric activity. (b) Bathyal zone: It receives dim light and is
geologically active.
(c) Abyssal zone: It is the dark zone and is very deep (2000 to 5000 m).
 Characteristic features of marine ecosystem
1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water.
2. Since, ships, submarines can sail in ocean a large number of commercial activities are carried
out.
3. It is rich in biodiversity.
4. It moderates the temperature of earth.
Structure and function of marine ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, NaCl, KCl.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Phytoplankton and marine plants
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers (Herbivores): Crustaceans, molluscs (ii)
Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Herring, mackerel (iii)
Tertiary consumers: Cod
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
"An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river
which joins the sea". They are rich in nutrients and have high food
potential.

Characteristics of estuarine ecosystem

1. Estuaries are transition zones, which are strongly affected by tides of sea.
2. Water characteristics are periodically changed.
3. The living organisms here have wide tolerance.
4. Salinity in estuaries are highest in summer and lowest in winter.
Structure and function of estuarine ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, pH, sodium and potassium salts.
2. Biotic components:
 (a) Producers: Marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea grasses.
(b) Consumers: Oysters, Crabs, small fishes.
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.

KEYSTONE SPECIES
Within a habitat each species connects to and depends on other species. But,
while each species contribute to habitat functioning, some species do more
than others in the overall scheme of things. Without the work of these key
species, the habitat changes significantly. These species are called
“keystone species". When a keystone species disappears from its habitat,
that habitat changes dramatically.
Illustration - 1
Elephants as keystone species in Grasslands
Elephants are keystone species in African grasslands. When elephants are
taken away from grasslands, it is converted into forest or shrub areas by
overgrowth of woody plants. As keystone species, elephants prevent this
conversion.
Illustration - 2
Forest elephants hold keystone status in some woodland (forest) in western Africa
In the above forest elephants are the only species large enough to eat and
disperse the seeds of some plant species whose shells are very hard. Thus
only elephants can feed on them and disperse the seeds through their
dung thereby maintains the forest.
Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and ecosystem
diversity: BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION: Bio means „life‟ and
diversity means „variety‟, hence Biodiversity refers to variety of life on
the earth. Planet earth (biosphere) contains more than 20 million species
of organisms. They differ widely from one another. Diversification in the
species is influenced by various physical and climatic factors, resulting in
the production of new sub-species. Biodiversity is defined as, “the variety
and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem in
which they occur”.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY:
A. GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of combinations
each of which gives rise to some variability. When the genes within the
same species show different version due to new combinations, it is called
genetic variability. For example rice belongs to the species Oryzasativa
which has many varieties that differ in size, shape, aroma etc.
B. SPECIES BIODIVERSITY
This is the variability found within the population of a species or between
different species of a community. It broadly represents the species richness
and their abundance in a community. Shannon Wiener index and Simpson
index are two popular indices of measuring species diversity.
C. ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY
This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in
ecological niche, trophic structure, food webs, nutrient cycling etc. The
ecosystem also shows variations with respect to physical parameters like
moisture, temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA:

Biogeographic zone Biotic province Important Flora & Fauna

Trans-Himalayan Upper region Pine,deodar-

Wild sheep, yak, leopard, wolf

Himalayan North west, west, Pine, cork tree, sal, dhaak- Wild bear,
central and East sambar, leopard, Sikkim stag, musk deer
Himalayas
Desert Kutch, Thar and Acacia, zizyphus, khejri, date palm-
Ladkh Camel, bastard, wild ass, desert cat, fox,
rat
Semi-arid Central India, Acacia, date palm, peepal -Gir lion, tiger,
Gujarat sariska and Ranthampore tiger

Western ghats Malabar coast Sheeshan, peepal, tuna, bahera- Tortoise,

Western ghats frog, lizards, snakes
mountain
Deccan peninsula Deccan plateau Acacia, palaash, tuna, pine, castor-
Sambar, sloth bear, tiger, cheetal, four
horned stag, wild elephant, wild buffalo
Gangetic plain Upper and lower Sal, acacia, jamun, mango, bael-
Gangetic plain black chinkara, stag, rhinoceros, gazzel,
Aligator, turtle

North-east India Brahmaputra Bamboo, sal, jack fruit, tuna, Chestnut

valley cator- Elephnat, Rhinocers, yak, deer,
porcupine
Islands Andaman islands, Bahera, Harar, jack fruit, cardamom,
Nicobar islands & coconut, cloves- Dolphin, alligator,
Lakshadeep Molluscs
islands
Coasts West coast Coconut, Banana, cashew Nut – Dugong,
East coast Dolphin, Turtle, Alligator, Molluscs
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: (Consumptive use, Productive use, Social, Ethical,
Aesthetic and Option values)
1. CONSUMPTIVE USE VALUE
• Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings
as food. About 80,000 plants are from wild. About 90% of crops are
domesticated from tropical forest.
• Drugs and medicine: About 75% of population depends upon plant
or plant extracts for medicine. Penicillin antibiotic drug is derived from the
fungus penicillium.
• Fuel: The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are products of fossilized biodiversity.

2. PRODUCTIVE USE VALUE

These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed
and sold. It may include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded
for use by scientist for introducing desirable traits in the crops and
domesticated animals. It includes animal products like tusk of elephants,
musk deer, silk from silk worm, wool from sheep, fur of many animals etc.
Many industries like paper and pulp. Silk, textile, ivory works industry
depend on them.

3. SOCIAL VALUE
It is associated with social life, customs, and religion and psycho-spiritual
aspects of the people. Many plants are considered holy and sacred in our
country like tulsi, peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael etc. many animals like cow,
snake, peacock, bull, owl etc also have significant place in social
importance. The tribal people are very closely linked with the wildlife in
the forest.

4. ETHICAL VALUE
It is otherwise called existence value. It involves ethical issues like “all life
must be preserved” and “live and let live” concept. For the survival of
human race, all biodiversity has to be protected because biodiversity is
valuable.

5. AESTHETIC VALUE
People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness
areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type
of tourism is known as eco –tourism. The willingness to pay concept
annually generates 12 billion revenue.
6. OPTION VALUE
It is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing on the
biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something
important in the future it suggests that any species may prove to be miracle
species someday.
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL
AND LOCAL LEVEL: BIODIVERSITY AT
GLOBAL LEVEL:
It is estimated that there are about 20 million species of plants and animals
in earth of which only 1.6 million species have been formally identified
with 34 hotspot regions at the global level. There are 12 megadiversity
nations which are highly rich in biodiversity which includes India. Most
of the world‟s biodiversity are near the equator especially tropical rain
forests and coral reefs. South America also has unique species and
biodiversity.

BIODIVERSITY AT NATIONAL LEVEL:

India is rich in biodiversity due to its varying climate and topographical
features. It occupies only 2.5% of global land of which about 40% is under
cultivation. There are 96 national parks, 572 wildlife sanctuaries 14 biosphere
reserves and 2 hotspots with 46,000 plant species and 91,000 animal species,
50,000 varieties of rice, 1000 varities of mango, etc.,
1. India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world
2. 11th in terms of Endemic species.
3. 6th among origin of agricultural crops.
4. 12th mega biodiversity country in the world.

BIODIVERSITY AT REGIONAL OR LOCAL LEVEL:

Tamilnadu is rich in biodiversity with natural habitat constituting 4% of
country‟s total area which shares the Western Ghats with Kerala, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Goa and, Eastern Ghats with Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
accounting for nearly about one third of the total flora of India.
1. Point Richness: Refers to number of species at a single point.
2. Alpha Richness: Refers to the number of species found in a small homogeneous area.
3. Beta Richness: Refers to rate of change in species composition across different
habitats.
4. Gamma Richness: Refers to the rate of change across large landscape gradients.

INDIA AS A MEGA BIODIVERSITY NATION:

India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world. The

Ministry of environmental and forests, Government of India (2000) records
47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals which is about 7% and
6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.
1. Endemism: Species which are restricted to only to a particular area
are known as endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species.
About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic.
2. Centre of origin: A large number of species have known to
originate in India. Nearly 5000 flowering species, 166 species of crop plants
and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops origin in India.
3. Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in
the mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs, back waters etc. there exist a rich
biodiversity. More than 340 species of corals of the world are found here.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant
reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans. To qualify as a
biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot- map, a region must
meet two strict criteria:
1. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics.
2. It must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this definition, with nine
others possible candidates. These sites support nearly 60% of the world's
plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share
of endemic species.
The importance of biodiversity: Biodiversity is often used to draw
attention to issues related to the environment. It can be closely related to:

• The health of ecosystems.

For example, the loss of just one species can have different effects ranging from the
disappearance of the species to complete collapse of the ecosystem itself. This
is due to every species having a certain role within an ecosystem and being
interlinked with other species.
• The health of mankind.
Experiencing nature is of great importance to humans and teaches us
different values. It is good to take a walk in the forest, to smell flowers and
breathe fresh air. More specifically, natural food and medicine can be linked
to biodiversity.
 Hot spots of Biodiversity in India:
The hot spots of biodiversity are the geographic areas which possess the
high endemic species. At the global level these are the areas of high
conservation priority, if these species are lost they can never be replaced or
regenerated.
Criteria for recognizing Hotspots: The richness of the endemic species
is the primary criterion; they should have a significant percentage of
specialized species; the site should be under threat and should contain
important gene pools of plants of potential use.
Two hot spots in India are:
1. Eastern Himalayas (Indo-Burma region) and
2. Western Ghats (Srilanka region).

Eastern Himalayas: Comprises of Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states

of Northern India- 35,000 plant species are found here and 30 % are endemic
– also rich in wild plants of economic value eg. Rice, banana, citrus, ginger,
chilli, jute and sugarcane – Taxal yielding plant also scarcely distributed –
63% mammals are from this region- 60% of Indian Birds- huge wealth of
fungi, insects, mammals and birds found in this region

Western Ghats: Comprises of parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Tamilnadu and Kerala – nearly 1500 endemic, dicotyledones 62% amphibians
and 50% lizards are endemic here- Ternstroemia, Japonica, Rhododendron
and Hypericum common plants- Blue Bird and Lizard hawk are common
animals.

Biodiversity is the richness & varied species of different organisms

contained in a particular ecosystem – Indian biodiversity is highly diverse and
rich such that there are various hot spots. However there are numerous threats
to our Biodiversity.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY :( Habitat loss, Poaching of wildlife & Man-

wildlife conflicts) In 2006 many species were formally classified as rare or
endangered or threatened; moreover, scientists have estimated that
millions more species are at risk which has not been formally recognized.
About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List
criteria are

now listed as threatened with extinction.

 LOSS OF HABITAT:
Habitat destruction:
Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related
to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are:
overpopulation, deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil
contamination) and global warming or climate change. Habitat size and
numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and
those living at
lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
Climate change:
Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global
biodiversity in the future. Climate change has seen many claims about
potential to affect biodiversity but evidence supporting the statement is
tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant
morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges,
phenology, and weather, but the major impacts that have been predicted are
still just potential impacts. We have not documented major extinctions yet,
even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species.

POACHING: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited

endangered animals i.e. poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite
international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of
wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal
products worth millions of dollars per year continues. The developing nations
in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest source of biodiversity and
have enormous wealth in wildlife.

Overexploitation:
Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable
rate. This occurs on land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor
soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade Joe Walston,
director of the Wildlife Conservation Society's Asian programs, called the
latter the "single largest threat" to biodiversity in Asia. The international trade
of endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking.

MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS:

CAUSES OF MAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT:

 1. Dwindling habitats of elephants, Tigers, rhinos and bears due to forest
shrinkage compels them to move outside forest.
2. Usually ill, weak, and injured animals have a tendency to attack the humans.
3. Earlier Forest department used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane within
the sanctuaries, due to lack of such practices the animals move out of forest
food.
4. Villagers put Electric Wiring around their crop field which injures the
elephants and turn them violent.
5. Wildlife corridors have been disrupted which makes the animals
attack human beings during their migration.
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CURB THE CONFLICT:
1. Tiger conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making
available vehicles, tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc., to
tactfully deal with any imminent danger.
2. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be
started.
3. Solar powered fencing should be provided to prevent animals from
4. straying into fields.
5. Cropping pattern should be changed near the border.
6. Wildlife corridors should be provided.

Introduced and invasive species:

Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage
diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the
process of allopatric speciation. The term invasive species is applied to species
that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them
constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often
supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources
that would normally sustain native species.
Genetic pollution:
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of
genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic
swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local
genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an
introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of
introduction and invasion.

Hybridization, genetic pollution/Erosion and food security

In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the
use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds
originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local
varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local
climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing
hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous
breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic
pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a
whole.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA:

1. ENDANGERED SPECIES OFINDIA
The international Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) publishes the red Data book which includes the list of endangered
species of plants and animals.

Species Names
Reptiles Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise,python
Birds Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian hornbill,
Siberian White crane
Carniv Indian Wolf, red fox, sloth bear, red panda, tiger, leopard,
ors Stripped Hyena, Indian lion, Golden cat, desert cat, Dugong
Mamm
als
Primates Hoolock Gibbon, lion tailed Macaque, Nilgiri languor, capped
monkey, Golden monkey
Plants A large number of species of Orchids, Rhododendrons, Medicinal
Plants like Rauvolfia serpentine, the sandal wood tree santalum,
Cycasbeddonei

2. ENDEMIC SPECIES OFINDIA:

India has two biodiversity hotspots and thus possesses a large number of
endemic species. Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country 7000
species are endemic. Thus, Indian subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora,
restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and WesternGhats. Some of the
endemic flora includes orchids and species like Sapria Himalaya,
Uvarialurdia
A large number out of total 81,000 species of animals in our country is
endemic. The Western Ghats are particularly rich in amphibians and reptiles.
About 62% Amphibians and 50% lizards are
endemic to Western Ghats. Different species of Monitor lizards, reticulated
python and Indian salamander and viviparous toad are some important
endemic species of our country.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY (In-situ conservation & Ex-situ conservation)

In-situ and ex-situ conservation along with their merits and

limitations:
Conservation of Biodiversity: Biodiversity faces threat of extinction – due
human activities – to salvage situation – conservation of biodiversity need of
the hour- to preserve biodiversity to prevent their extinction and future
flourishing – conservation of Biodiversity required
In-situ conservation: Involves allocating large areas of the land mass for
wild life development- such areas can be closed to the public for tourism –
wild life can be allowed to flourish in their own environment- promotes
genetic diversity- does not stagnate the gene pool

Advantages: cheap and convenient method Species gets adjusted the

natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires.

Limitations: Large surface area of the earth required – shortage of staff and
pollution may lead to improper maintenance of the habitat.

Ex-situ conservation: Involves conservation of wild life in zoos, botanical

gardens-human supervision- wildlife can grow under controlled conditions -
animals would be properly taken care- food, shelter and water- help in the
flourishing of endangered species- possible the gene pool could stagnate and
result in no genetic diversity taking place.

Advantages: Special care and attention lead to survival of endangered

species– In captive breeding, animals are assured food, water, shelter and
security - hence longer life span- it is carried out for the endangered species,
which do not have any chances of survival in the wild.
Limitations: Expensive method- freedom of wild life is lost – animals
cannot survive in such confined places.