LECTURE- 2

ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
 The word Ecology is made up of two ancient Greek words 'oikos’ meaning home or place to
live in and ‘logos’ meaning study. Literally, it is the study of the home of nature.
 Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between organisms and their
environment. The word Ecology was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, a German Scientist.

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT?
 Everything that surrounds or affects an
organism during its lifetime is
collectively known as its environment.

LEVELS OF ORGANISATIONS IN ECOLOGY:

Individual  Population  Community  Ecosystem  Biome  Biosphere

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CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:
 Abiotic Factors – Eg. Rainfall, Temperature, Soil, Latitude, Altitude, etc.
 Biotic Factors –Primary Producers (Autotrophs) like plants, bacteria, etc.
Consumers (Heterotrophs) which are further divided into Macro Consumers: Herbivores Eg.
Rabbit and Carnivores Eg. Tigers and Micro Consumers: Eg. Decomposers (Detrivores or
Saprotrophs) like Earthworm which feed and depend on others for food and energy.

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FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 Ecosystem functions are natural processes or exchanges of energy that take place in
various plant and animal communities of different biomes of the world.
 Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials into
simple inorganic products, which are used by the producers.
FOOD CHAIN:
 The order of living organisms in a
community in which one organism
consumes the other and is itself
consumed by another organism to
transfer energy is called a food
chain.
 A food chain starts with a producer
such as plants. Plants are called
producers because they produce their
own food through photosynthesis.
 Animals are called consumers
because they depend on plants or
other animals for food to get the
energy they need.

TROPHIC LEVELS IN A FOOD

CHAIN
 Trophic levels are different stages of
feeding positions in a food chain such
as primary producers and consumers of
different types.
 Organisms in a food chain are
categorized under different groups
called trophic levels.

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TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS

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FOOD WEB
 The word ‘web’ means network. Food web can be defined as a network of interconnected
food chains to form a number of feeding relationships among different organisms of a biotic
community.

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  A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem. It is essential to know that
each living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.
 All the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.
The food web provides stability to the ecosystem. The tertiary consumers are eaten by
‘quaternary’ consumers.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:
Ecosystem Services are the variety of benefits or services that the ecosystem provides to us,
humans. It usually is divided into 4 services namely:

5) BIOME
 The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes, which
are characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life, and general soil type.
 Each biome is distinct and no two biomes are similar to each other. The two most
important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.

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Main types of Biomes are:

6) BIOSPHERE:
 Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist.
 Biosphere represents a highly integrated and interacting zone comprising of the
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (land).

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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
 The graphical representation of the relationship between various living beings at various trophic
levels within a food chain is called an ecological pyramid.

1) PYRAMID OF NUMBERS (BOTH UPRIGHT & INVERTED)

2) PYRAMID OF BIOMASS (BOTH UPRIGHT & INVERTED)

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3) PYRAMID OF ENERGY (ALWAYS UPRIGHT)

 Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon of biological magnification –

the tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration progressively with higher
trophic levels.

Lindemann gave the

‘ten percent law’ in
1942.
This law states
that only 10 percent
of energy in a food
chain out of the
total energy is
transferred from
one trophic level to
another.

Why there are not more than four-five trophic levels?

 Energy flows to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional. Energy is passed up a food chain
or web from lower to higher trophic levels. However, generally only about 10 percent of the
energy at one level is available to the next level.
 The remaining 90 percent of energy is used for metabolic processes or given off to the
environment as heat.
 This loss of energy explains why there are rarely more than four trophic levels in a food chain
or web. Sometimes there may be a fifth trophic level, but usually there’s not enough energy
left to support any additional levels.

POLLUTANTS & TROPHIC LEVELS:

The movement of pollutants involves two main processes:

1. BIOACCUMULATION
2. BIOMAGNIFICATION

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 CONNECT THE DOTS
 Stockholm Convention recognises 12 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) collectively called the
‘Dirty Dozen’.
 The list includes POPs like Aldrin, DDT, Heptachlor, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) etc.
 DDT is banned for agricultural use in India.

BIOACCUMULATION
1) Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic
poisoning), or other substances in an organism.
2) As persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like DDT are long-lasting, the risk of
bioaccumulation is high even if the environmental levels of the pollutant are low.

BIOMAGNIFICATION
 Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at
each trophic level with the passage of time.
 In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a long biological half-life
(long-lived), and must not be soluble in water but must be soluble in fats. Eg. DDT.
 If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism.
 Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time. Hence it is traditional to
measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. (Eg. Mercury
levels in Fish – link with Minamata Convention)

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BIOTIC INTERACTIONS:
Organisms living on this earth are interlinked with each
other in one way or other. The interaction between the
organisms is fundamental for the survival and
functioning of the ecosystem as a whole.

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BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES: Examples
Mutualism: Plant for Pollination &
 Any of the natural pathways by which essential elements of
Bee for Nectar.
living matter are circulated can be called the
biogeochemical cycle. Commensalism: Cow dung &
 The term biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the Beetles.
consideration of the biological, geological, and Amensalism: A large tree shades a
chemical aspects of each cycle. small plant, retarding the growth
of the small plant but the small
Nutrient Cycling: tree doesn’t affect the tree.
Competition: Cheetah & Tiger
 The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, fighting for the same resources in
phosphorus, calcium, etc., present in the soil at any given a jungle. Eg. In Kuno NP (MP)
time, is referred to as the standing state. It varies in Predation: Hyena killing a gazelle
different kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis. and causing its death.
 The movement of nutrient elements through the various Parasitism: Parasites suck blood
components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling. of an organism.
Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical cycles
(bio: living organism, geo: rocks, air, water). Nutrient
cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary.

Types of Nutrient Cycle:

• GASEOUS CYCLES – where the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere, and generally
considered perfect cycles
• SEDIMENTARY CYCLES – where the reservoir is the earth’s crust and are considered
relatively imperfect

A. GASEOUS CYCLES:

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Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways:
(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
(ii) By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories) and
(iii) To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lighting.

ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN THE NITROGEN CYCLE:

Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions. These
include
1. free-living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and anaerobic Clostridium) and
2. Symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in association with leguminous plants and symbiotic
bacteria living in non-leguminous root nodule plants (e.g. Rhizobium) as well as blue-
green algae (e.g. Anabaena, Spirulina).

Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of nitrogen by some plants, or are oxidized to
nitrites or nitrates by two groups of specialized bacteria:

1. Nitrosomonas bacteria promote the transformation of ammonia into nitrite.  then Nitrite is
transformed into nitrate by the bacteria Nitrobacter  Nitrates synthesized by bacteria in the soil
are taken up by plants and converted into amino acids  These go through higher trophic levels
of the ecosystem  During excretion/death nitrogen is returned to the soil as ammonia.
2. In the soil and oceans there are denitrifying bacteria (eg. Pseudomonas), which convert the
nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen  nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus
completing the cycle. The periodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere
to ammonia and nitrates which eventually reach the earth’s surface.

B. SEDIMENTARY CYCLES:
Phosphorus, Calcium and Magnesium circulate by means of the sedimentary cycle. The
elements involved in the sedimentary cycle normally do not cycle through the atmosphere but
follow a basic pattern of flow through erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic
activity and biological transport.

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
The gradual and progressive growth of a species in any given area with respect to its changing
surroundings and time is called ecological succession.
PRIMARY SUCCESSION:

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  The first plant to colonize an area is called the PIONEER COMMUNITY.
 The final stage of succession is called the CLIMAX COMMUNITY.
 The stages leading to the climax community are called SUCCESSIONAL STAGES OR
SERES.
 Succession is characterized by the following: increased productivity, the shift of nutrients
from’ the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms with increased niche development,
and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.
SECONDARY SUCCESSION:

 Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize an area in which the climax
community has been disturbed. Secondary succession is the sequential development of
biotic communities after the complete or partial destruction of the existing community.
 A mature or intermediate community may be destroyed by natural events such as floods,
droughts, fires, or storms or by human interventions such as deforestation, agriculture,
overgrazing, etc.
 This abandoned farmland is first invaded by hardy species of grasses that can survive in
bare, sun-baked soil. These grasses may be soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous plants.

 Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or
animals. And over the years, a forest community develops. Therefore, abandoned farmland
over a period becomes dominated by trees and transforms into a forest.
 The difference between primary and secondary succession is that secondary succession
starts on well-developed soil already formed at the site. Thus, secondary succession is
relatively faster as compared to primary succession which may often require hundreds of
years.

Autogenic and Allogenic Succession: When succession is brought about by living

inhabitants of that community itself, the process is called autogenic succession, while
change brought about by outside forces is known as allogenic succession.

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Succession: A succession where initially the green

plants are much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic succession, and the ones in
which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.

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IMPORTANT TERMS:
Difference between Ecology, Environment, Habitat & Ecosystem
 Ecology = study of interactions between organisms, organisms and the surroundings
 Ecosystem = a functional unit of the environment (mostly the biosphere) + A community of
organisms together with the environment in which they live  Environment = a group of
ecosystems
 Habitat = a part of the ecosystem
 Ecological community = A community of organisms interacting with one another
 Biosphere = That part of the earth which is inhabited by living organisms + The region on
earth that supports life

 ECOTONE:
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. Eg. the mangrove forests,
grassland and estuary.

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Ecocline
Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another when there is no sharp
boundary between the two in terms of species composition.

SERE:
 A sere, or seral community, is described as the
progression of an ecological community's growth
phases from the pioneers  climax.
 There are seven different types of seres.

BIODIVERSITY – SPECIES
WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living
organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes
diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems”.
- United Nations Earth Summit (1992)

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CAUSES FOR BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Natural causes Man-Made causes

• Foods  Habitat destruction
• Earthquakes  Uncontrolled commercial exploitation
• Landslides  Hunting & poaching
• Rivalry among species  Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for human
• Lack of pollination and diseases. settlement and industrial development
 Extension of agriculture
 Pollution
 Filling up of wetlands
 Destruction of coastal area

SPECIES & BIODIVERSITY:

 More than 70 percent of all the species recorded are Why Tropical Regions have greater
animals, while plants (including algae, fungi, Biological Diversity?
bryophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms) 1. Speciation: It is function of time, unlike
temperate regions subjected to frequent
comprise no more than 22 percent of the total.
glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes
 Among animals, insects are the most species-rich have remained relatively undisturbed for
taxonomic group, making up more than 70 percent millions of years.
of the total. 2. Tropical environments, unlike temperate
ones, are less seasonal, relatively more
 The number of fungi species in the world is more constant and predictable. Such
than the combined total of the species of fishes, constant environments promote niche
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. specialization and lead to a greater
species diversity.
 The largely tropical Amazonian rainforest in South
3. More solar energy available in the
America has the greatest biodiversity on earth. tropics, which contributes to higher
 A large proportion of the species waiting to be productivity; this in turn might contribute
discovered are in the tropics. indirectly to greater diversity.

FAUNA & FLORA:

VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are animals with backbones and spinal columns. Vertebrates are the most
advanced organisms on Earth. Although vertebrates represent only a very small percentage of
all animals, their size and mobility often allow them to dominate their environment.

SPECIES DETAILS PICTURE

Fishes Cold blooded; Breathe
underwater using gills, not
lungs; Have scales and fins;
Lay eggs

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Amphibians Cold blooded; Live on land
& water; Webbed feet;
Breathe with lungs and
gills; Moist smooth skin;
Lay eggs

Reptiles Cold-blooded; Have scales;

Have dry skin; Usually lay
eggs; Ear holes instead of
ears

Aves (Birds) Warm-blooded; Have

feathers and wings; Lay
eggs; Have 2 legs; Ear
holes instead of ears

Mammals Warm-blooded; Have hair Picture given below

or fur; Give birth to live
young ones; Breathe with
lungs

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INVERTEBRATES:
Invertebrates do not have backbones. More than 98% animal species in the world are invertebrates.
Invertebrates don’t have an internal skeleton made of bone. Many invertebrates have a fluid-filled,
hydrostatic skeleton, like the jelly fish or worm. Others have a hard outer shell, like insects and
crustaceans

INVERTEBRATES DETAILS PICTURE

Annelids Annelids have bodies that
are divided into segments;
They have very well-
developed internal organs;
Found almost anywhere in
the world; They don’t have
any limbs; E.g:
earthworms, leeches,
roundworms, etc.

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Molluscs Most molluscs have a soft,
skin-like organ covered
with a hard outside shell;
Some molluscs live on
land, such as the snail and
slugs; Other molluscs live
in water, such as the oyster,
mussel, clam, squid and
octopus

Echinoderms Echinoderms are marine

animals that live in the
ocean; Most echinoderms
have arms or spines that
radiate from the center of
their body; Common
echinoderms include the
sea star, sea urchin, sand
dollar and sea cucumber.

Protozoa Protozoa are simple, single-

celled animals; the smallest
of all animals; most
protozoa are microscopic;
They do breathe, move and
reproduce like multi-celled
animals; E.g: amoebas,
Flagellates, etc.

Arthropods Arthropods have limbs

with joints that allow them
to move; They also have an
exoskeleton, which is a
hard, external skeleton;
Arthropods include the
crustaceans and insects,
arachnids.

Crustaceans Live mostly in the ocean or

other waters; Crustaceans
have a hard, external shell
which protects their body;
Most commonly known
crustaceans are the crab,
lobster and barnacle.

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 Arachnids Common arachnids are
scorpions, ticks and mites;
Arachnids do not have
antennae; Arachnids have 2
body parts and 4 pairs of
legs

Insects Insects have an exoskeleton

that covers their entire
body; E.g: beetle,
butterfly, moth, dragonfly,
bee, wasp and praying
mantis.

FLORAL DIVERSITY:
Important floral groups found in India are described below:

FLORAL DETAILS PICTURE

GROUPS
Algae Autotrophic green plants non -
differentiated into organs. Eg.
The fresh-water algae, The
marine algae

Fungi Non-green non differentiated

plants characterised by total
absence of chlorophyll. Grow
either on dead, rotten organic
matters as saprophytes (Moulds
and mushrooms). Also, lives as
parasites on other living bodies,
which are referred to as hosts.
Maximum diversity = Western
Ghats > Eastern Himalaya>
Western Himalaya.

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Bacteria Non-chlorophyllous soil borne
micro-organisms. Many are
pathogenic; Saprophytic
bacteria are rather beneficial.

Lichens A combination of Algae and

Fungi (example of Mutualism
and symbiosis). Grows on
rocks, tree trunks etc.
Algae - manufactures food for
fungus, and the absorbs and
retains water and thus keeps the
algal cells moist.
They are not found in
groundwater.

Bryophytes The plant body is differentiated

into a small stem and simple
leaves, but true roots are absent.
They usually grow in moist
places. Eg. Liverworts, mosses.

Pteridophytes They have well-differentiated

plant bodies. Moreover, they
possess vascular bundles. Most
of them are terrestrial plants
flourishing well in moist and
shady places, and some of them
are aquatic.
- Pteridophytic diversity =
North East (including Eastern
Himalaya) > South India
(including Eastern and
Western Ghats) > Western
Himalaya

Gymnosperms Naked-seeded plants. They

have very simple flowers
without accessory whorls and
stamens and carpels remain
aggregated in cones. Ovules are
present on the surface of the
carpels and are directly
pollinated by the pollen grains
- There is nothing like ovary,

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 style and stigma, and naturally
there is no fruit. e.g. Cycas,
Pinus, Gnetum. Pine is the
largest family. Gnetum and
Cycas are mostly confined to
North Eastern region, Eastern
and Western Ghats, and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Angiosperms They are the closed-seeded
plants. These are the most
highly developed plants which
bear flowers having
conspicuous accessory and
essential whorls. Carpels have
the ovary, style and stigma.
With the stimulus of
fertilization the ovary usually
develops into the fruit and the
ovules into seeds. Thus the
seeds remain within the fruits.

BIOPROSPECTING and BIOPIRACY

 BIOPROSPECTING refers to the exploration of biodiversity for commercially valuable
genetic resources and biochemical.
o Bioprospecting as an activity refers to deriving products of economic importance by
nations endowed with rich biodiversity by exploring their molecular, genetic, and
species-level diversity.
 BIOPIRACY occurs when “genetic resources and traditional knowledge is taken from
biodiverse developing countries without permission.”
o Moreover, the stolen traditional knowledge is used to benefit the non-indigenous
people through a patent or product with no compensation or gain received by the
indigenous people.
o Biopiracy of India’s “genetic resources and traditional knowledge” by advanced
economies and large corporations is a matter of great concern. (link with Intellectual
Property Rights and PPVFR Act, 2001)

EVIL QUARTET
 Evil quartet is a term related to four major causes of biodiversity losses
HABITAT LOSS AND FRAGMENTATION

 Natural forests are cleared for industry,

agriculture, dams, habitation, recreational
sports, etc.
 The most dramatic examples of habitat loss
come from tropical rainforests. E.g. The
Amazon rain forest (called the ‘lungs of the
planet’), is being cleared for cultivating
soybean or for conversion to grasslands for
raising beef cattle (ranching).

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  Habitat fragmentation increases the risk of inbreeding (the mating of organisms closely
related by ancestry). Inbreeding limits the gene pool. This increases the risk of local
extinction.
ALIEN SPECIES INVASIONS

 Invasive alien species are non-native species that

spread and interfere in a new ecosystem by
posing a serious threat to the native biodiversity,
leading to economic loss.
 When invasive species are introduced into an
ecosystem, they may not have any natural
predators or controls, and native wildlife may not
have evolved defences against the invading
species.
How are invasive species introduced into an ecosystem?
 Invasive species are primarily spread by human activities like transportation.
 Ships can carry aquatic organisms in their ballast water and on their propellers.
 Sometimes, humans voluntarily introduce an invasive species to control the population of
another species.
 In addition, changes in rain and snow patterns caused by climate change will enable some
invasive plant species to move into new areas.

Threats to native wildlife from invasive species

The direct threats of invasive species include:
o Preying on native species, outcompeting native species for food or other resources, causing or
carrying disease, and preventing native species from reproducing or killing a native species’
progenies.
There are indirect threats of invasive species as well.
o They can change the food web by destroying or replacing native food sources; They may
provide little to no food value for wildlife; Aggressive plant species can quickly replace a
diverse ecosystem with a monoculture; Additionally, some invasive species are capable of
changing soil chemistry or the intensity of wildfires. Acacia (wattle) and eucalyptus

Invasive Species Description

Forked Fanwort
- Submerged perennial aquatic plant
Widespread growth in Kerala's water bodies, turning them pink
- Invasive species from Central and South America
- Requires significant oxygen, impacting freshwater biodiversity

Indian Bullfrog - Large frog found in mainland Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, & Nepal
- Invasive in Madagascar & Andaman Islands
- Now a widespread invasive species.
- Prefers freshwater wetlands & aquatic habitats
- Classified as LC (Least Concern) by IUCN Red List

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 - Introduced in Banni grasslands to combat salinity and halt the advancement of Rann
Prosopis Juliflora
of Kutch
- Thrived and invaded the grasslands, affecting rechargeable water supply
- Positively contributed to charcoal production for Maldhari herders
- Negative consequences include loss of pastures and exacerbation of droughts

Lantana

Lantana grow extensively & create a mat-like structure.

As a result, herbivores like Gaur, Chital and Sambar are deprived of their food.

- Natural grasslands in Kutch region

- Used to be a prime grassland in India
Banni Grasslands
- Currently facing overgrazing, salinity ingress, invasion by Prosopis juliflora, and
agricultural encroachment
- Legally protected as a protected forest in India
- Indian Wild Ass population from Little Rann of Kutch is increasing, spilling over
into Banni Grasslands.
- Maldharis are a pastoral community of Kutch that depended on the Banni Grasslands
for their livelihood.

Nile perch fish

Introduction into Lake Victoria in East Africa led eventually to the extinction of an
ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake.

Introduced from Australia, have become highly invasive. It has led to destruction of
Eucalyptus
native vegetation.

Acacias have almost replaced the grasslands in the Nilgiris, which sustained cattle for
Wattle (Acacia) centuries.
• The government introduced acacia in the region after India stopped importing tannin
from Africa in the 1960s.
• Tannin, found in the bark, pods and leaves of acacia, is an organic substance used for
preserving leather. African catfish
• The banned African catfish (invasive species) is illegally reared and sold in Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.

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