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The term geology has been derived from two Greek words ‘Geo’ (gagia or ge,
the ancestral Earth-goddess of Greek mythology) and logy (‘logos’, a suffix
denoting ‘knowledge of’) meaning the Earth and discourse, respectively. Hence,
in general, geology literally means ‘study of Earth’ or ‘science of Earth.’

The study of the physical material of the Earth dates back at least to ancient
Greece when Theophrastus (372-287 BC) wrote the book Peri Lithon (On
Stones).
It is believed that the word geology was first used by Richard de Bury in 1473
and was taken into modern usage by Ulysis Aldrovandus in 1605. According to
another view the word ‘geology’ was first used in 1778 in the work of Jean
Andrea de Luc (a Swiss-born scientist) and at the same time in the work of Swiss
Chemist, S.B. Saucer. As such geology is the oldest science because man has
been using natural resources of the Earth since times immemorial. Today,
geology is identified as a branch of Earth Science that studies all aspects of the
planet. We will discuss about Earth science later in this section.

The person practicing geology is called a Geologist. Geologists are uniquely

trained to understand the destructive and potentially beneficial role of mankind
in the future of Earth’s environments and natural resources. Fig. 1.1 shows
geologists at work in the field. You will be acquainted with geologist’s job, later
in this unit.

Geology is an integrative science. To figure out how the Earth works, a geologist
must integrate, or combine elements of chemistry, biology, physics and
mathematics. Besides chemical, biological, physical and mathematical
components, geology also integrates computational sciences. For example,
while examining a piece of rock, a geologist must think of life, if any recorded,
identify its minerals, analyse its chemistry and examine its material properties
viz. physical, optical and engineering.

Definition

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Geology is a fascinating subject which observes pulse of the Earth. It studies the
Earth as a whole, its origin, structure, composition and history (including life)
and the nature of processes which have given rise to its present form. Geology
can be defined as the study of the history and evolution of the Earth and its
inhabitants. It deals with the Earth, rocks of which it is composed and the
changes it has undergone or is undergoing.’ According to Grotzinger and Jordan
(2010) “Geology identifies the branch of Earth science that studies all aspects of
the planet: its history, its composition, internal structure and its features.”
 How Does Geology Differ from Other Sciences?

Now let us discuss how geology differs from other sciences.

Quite often you must have seen that scientists are
portrayed as people who perform experiments wearing
white labcoats. However, the subject of Geology differs
from those sciences in following respects:

• Geology is an outdoor/field science with its own

approach and standpoint.
• Field is its natural laboratory where one can observe the
nature directly.
• Geologists try to probe Earth’s long history by reading
what has been “written on rocks”.
• Geologists may have to work in the nook and corner
irrespective of the remoteness and arduous nature of
the terrain. They engage themselves in data collection.
An incorrect perception/insight in the field and missing
critical observation of evidence can abort discovery of a
rich mineral deposit. It may also lead to failure of civil
structures made by man such as dam.
• Almost all of the great discoveries were made in
uncontrolled and natural field environment.
• Geological processes operate on much larger and longer
scales.

Geology is fundamentally an observational field science and

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geological map is its main tool. Field is the natural
laboratory for geology education. Hence, field component is
the integral element of Geology curricula. However, in past
few decades computer software have become available
which can simulate field in laboratory to some extent
 How Do Geologists Study Earth?

You have read that geology is a field science and the field exists
everywhere around us. Geologists must define the aim of the
project before they start working on it. You must be thinking that
what could be the aim for a geologist, e.g. it could be discovery of
petroleum, mineral resource or location of an earthquake prone
region. Let us discuss the following steps involved in geological
studies:

• Making observations: Observation is collecting data using your

five senses. Data is the information gathered during observation.
For instance, observing that Sun rises in the east provides data
about the Earth’s orbit.
• Building or modifying hypothesis or model: A geoscientist
proposes a hypothesis, based on careful observations over a long
period and present it to the community for working evaluation
and repeated testing. A hypothesis that is confirmed gains
credibility.
• Prediction: It involves the use of hypothesis (or model) to
predict the existence of other phenomena or to predict the
results of new observations. This is done using deductive
reasoning.
• Conducting experiments to test predictions: Testing a prediction
involves collecting data or designing an experiment for accurate
examination or careful testing of the hypothesis.
• Drawing conclusions: Geologists analyse the data obtained and
draw conclusions they have collected to arrive at a conclusion.

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Out of several principles being followed one of the fundamental is
‘uniformitarianism’. James Hutton in 1785 propounded the principle
‘The present is the key to the past’. It means that the ongoing
processes on the Earth provide clues for unravelling its mysteries.
Many such repeated observations attest the validity of the
conclusion. It is thereafter the hypothesis becomes a theory or a
scientific law.
 Relationship of Geology with Earth Science

We have discussed about our obvious interest in the study

of our ‘Mother Earth’. The study of this constitutes Earth
science. Earth scientists observe, classify and collect data
about the Earth. They constantly strive to unravel secrets
of the Earth. Earth Science integrates knowledge from
traditional disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics,
mathematics, engineering and economics. Earth Science
deals with the systematic study, including all the aspects of
sciences related to the planet Earth: the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere, as well as the solid Earth.

The broad areas of Earth science include the following:

• Geology
• Hydrology
• Oceanography
• Meteorology
• Astronomy
Of these we are concerned here and will concentrate on
geology.

Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and

quality of water on the Earth’s surface and other planets.
Oceanography, also known as marine science is the branch
of Earth science that studies all the aspects of the ocean.
Earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate form the subject

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matter of Meteorology. Meteorologica was the first Earth
science book which was written by Aristotle and got
published around 330 B.C. Astronomy deals with the study
of outer space with respect to the Earth. It has fascinated
the human beings since ancient times.
 Earth Science also includes geography, in which we
study the surface features of the Earth and its
inhabitants without any reference to its genesis.
You must study all of them to really understand
how the Earth works.
Earth science presents the history of our planet,
the processes modifying it and the projects of its
future as well. The study of Earth science gives us a
new perspective on why and how things happen
around us. It also attempts to find solutions for real
global environmental problems in relation to place
and time

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 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

You have already learnt about the integration of basic sciences

in geology.
Now let us study about its various branches, also referred to
as sub-disciplines of geology and their scope

General Geology
General geology includes:

• Planetary Geology: Also known as astrogeology, which

deals with Earth’s environment in outer space. It is
concerned with geology of the celestial bodies such as
planets and their moons, asteroids and comets.
• Physical Geology: Physical aspects, the internal and
external agencies and processes that shape the Earth are
dealt with in physical geology. It includes many sub-
branches.
• Structural Geology: It deals with the study of structures
observed in the rocks. As a result of various physical forces
structural changes occur on the external surface of the
Earth. The study of these structures and forces involved
constitutes structural geology.
• Geotectonics or Dynamic Geology: It is related to the
large-scale aspects of the Earth’s crust. It concerns with
the movements of the Earth’s crust and the shape,
structure, and arrangement of the rock masses resulting
from deformation caused by movements. The study of
these forces and changes forms the subject matter of

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•
geotectonics or dynamic geology.
Geomorphology or Physiography: It deals with the study
of the surface features of the Earth which are produced as
a result of various external agencies operating on the
Earth’s surface. Physiography describes only the external
characteristics whereas in geomorphology we study their
genesis also.
 Mineralogy

Mineralogy is the branch of geology that deals with

study of minerals related to their formation,
composition, characteristics, properties (physical and
optical), classification, mode of occurrence and origin
as well as their geographical distribution and utilisation.
Descriptive Mineralogy deals with study of different
characteristics of minerals. It is subdivided into the
following:
a) Physical Mineralogy is the study of physical
characteristics of the minerals.
b) Optical Mineralogy deals with optical characters of
minerals.
c) Chemical Mineralogy accounts for the chemical
makeup of the minerals.
d) Crystallography is a branch which deals with the
study of crystals. This involves their external forms
and internal atomic structure.
e) Economic Mineralogy deals with minerals of
economic importance. It is the study of
economically useful minerals and rocks of the
Earth’s crust like coal, petroleum, metallic and non-
metallic ores
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 Petrology

Petrology (Greek word petra meaning rock and logos meaning

knowledge) is the branch of geology that deals with ‘the study
of rocks’ including the origin, texture, structure, mineralogical
composition, distribution, and history of rocks. There are three
branches of petrology:

a) Igneous petrology deals with the study of all the aspects of

igneous rocks which are crystallised on cooling and
consolidation of hot molten material called magma.
b) Sedimentary petrology includes study of sediments or
sedimentary rocks formed on mechanical disintegration or
chemical decomposition of pre-existing rocks.
c) Metamorphic petrology deals with the study of rocks
formed when a pre-existing rock undergoes changes in
response to increased pressure and/or temperature in
presence of chemically active fluid.

Historical Geology
It records the features and aspects of the history of Earth and
comprises the following:

Palaeontology:
The study of ancient remains of plants and animals that are
found in the rocks of past geological periods is referred to as
Palaeontology. The life of the past ages is preserved in the
rocks in the form of fossils. Fossils are the remnants of plants or
animals of the past geologic ages preserved in the rocks of
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Earth’s crust by natural processes. Palaeontology can be further
divided into vertebrate palaeontology, invertebrate
palaeontology, micropalaeontology, palaeobotany and
palynology. Palaeobotany deals with the study of ancient plant
life whereas Palynology deals with the study of spores and
pollens preserved in rocks
 Stratigraphy:

The study and arrangement of rocks of the Earth in

chronological order is the subject matter of stratigraphy. This
branch of geology deals with the study of stratified and other
rocks as a record of geological history. Chronological order is
an arrangement of events in time or a record of events in the
order of their formation/ occurrences. We have read the
definitions of core or general branches of geology, now we
will discuss the applied and allied branches.

Applied and Allied Branches

• Mining geology: It deals with the study of application of

geology to mining engineering to select suitable sites for
quarrying and mining.
• Engineering geology: It deals with the geological studies
related to problems that arise in civil engineering projects
along with suitable treatments like construction of dams,
tunnels, mountain roads, building stones and road
materials.
• Hydrogeology or Geohydrology: It is related with ground
water and is the field between geology and hydrology.
• Rock Mechanics: It is related with geology in dealing with
the behaviour of rocks that is subjected to static and
dynamic loads.
• Geophysics: Interaction of geology and physics applied to
survey and prospecting, is the branch known as
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geophysics. The constitution of the Earth and the nature of
the physical forces operating on/within the Earth are its
study materials.
• Geochemistry: It concerns with the abundance,
distribution and migration of various elements in the
Earth.
 • Biogeochemistry: It deals with the study of geological,
chemical, physical and biological processes and reactions that
govern the composition of the natural environment. It
involves atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
and pedosphere.
• Marine Geology or Geological Oceanography: It involves
geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and
palaeontological investigations within the ocean basins and at
the coastal margins.
• Geoinformatics: It develops and uses spatial data and
informatics framework to address the problems of geology
related to geomorphology, mineral exploration, structural
geology, etc.

Emerging Areas of Geology

In similar manner, several emerging branches of geology are as

follows:
• Medical Geology: It deals with the relationship between
natural geological materials and processes and their effects
on human and animal health.
• Agriculture Geology: It deals with nature and distribution of
soil, occurrence of mineral fertilizers and underground water
required for sustainable agriculture.
• Palaeoclimatology: It is the branch of geology that studies
past climate of the Earth.
• Gemology: It is considered as a branch of mineralogy that
deals with identification and evaluation of natural and
artificial gems and gemstones.
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• Forensic Geology: It is the study of evidence(s) related to
minerals, oil, petroleum and other materials found in the
Earth that can be used in legal matters.
• Geomicrobiology: It deals with the interaction between
microorganisms and their metabolic processes with geological
and geochemical materials and/or processes.
 • Geotourism: It deals with the tourism that sustains or
enhances geographical character of a place – its
environment, culture, aesthetics, heritage and the well being
of its residents.
• Geoarchaeology: It uses multidisciplinary techniques of
geology, geography and other Earth sub-disciplines with
archaeological study and thoughts, for example protection of
building materials from weathering.
• Geostatistics: It is the branch of statistics focussing on spatio-
temporal datasets to investigate geological aspects.

GEOLOGY IN OUR LIVES

You must be curious by now with many questions in your mind.

What do geologists do? How does geology affect our lives? What
is the role of geologists in our society? How do geologists
practice geology? Let us find answers to these questions. You
have realised and read that our civilisation depends upon the
natural resources (water, soil, fossil fuels, metals, mineral and
others) of the Earth. It may be interesting to note that most of
the ancient civilisations like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
civilisations preferred river valleys for the simple reason of
availability of water supply. A geologist is supposed to study the
Earth, considering the short term and long term interests. In this
regard, exploration and utilisation of earth materials is necessary
to meet the present needs and also plan conservation for future.
Do you know that geology enters our lives many times a day and
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is relevant in day-to-day life? You would thus realise that geology
is a highly utilitarian science. Knowledge of geology is absolutely
necessary, in fact essential, for understanding the natural
environment and planning for a more comfortable existence of
man. Only through the knowledge of geology we can appreciate
the fact that the supply of resources to mankind and energy,
(fossil or nuclear) can be extracted from the Earth.
Basic understanding of the Earth and its resources is a necessary for
sustenance and improved agricultural productivity. Results succeed in
feeding not only people of our country but also some of the less
fortunate ones elsewhere. Now we will read more about how geology is
significant in our lives and in the service of man

Natural Resources
We have discussed above that we get a variety of useful materials from
the Earth’s crust. Systematic geological studies are very important for
their exploration and exploitation. Such materials are:
a) Building materials like quartzite, sandstone, granite are used for
construction of roads, buildings, etc. Mostly the locally occurring
rocks are preferred as building materials because of their availability
in the neighbourhood that reduces the transportation cost
considerations.
b) Metals: Metals like iron, aluminium, manganese, copper, lead, zinc,
chromium, silver, gold, tin are important and have always been
indispensable for our civilisation. These metals are extracted from
the ores, for examples, copper is extracted from chalcopyrite;
aluminium is extracted from bauxite ore.
c) Minerals: like clays are used in cosmetic and ceramic industry. Mica is
used as an insulator, sulphur bearing minerals are used in paint and
pigment industry, diamond in abrasive industry. These are all
extracted from rocks.
d) Fertilizers: Rocks on weathering provide elements like phosphorus,
potassium, nitrogen, and sulphur to the soil used as plant nutrients.

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 e) Gemstones: We get precious and semiprecious stones like
diamond, emerald, ruby, and moonstone, amethyst which are
used by human beings for ornamental and decorative
purposes.
f) Medicinal: Various metallic ores are utilised for preparing
bhasmas used in ayurvedic medicine

Water Resources

You are well aware about the problem of water scarcity. The world
today is facing acute water crises. You might wonder that if three-
fourth of the world is covered with water which is a renewable
resource, then how come problem has arisen? Water is the basic
requirement of all living beings. It is most important requirement
for human life for his personal needs, agriculture, etc. We get
water in form of rain water, underground water, and mineral
springs and above all from rivers and glacial melts. For proper
planning, exploration, conservation and utilisation of water,
geological studies are very important.

Power Resources

You must have observed in daily life that power generation is very
important aspect for overall development. Power and energy
supply to mankind is from biological, thermal or nuclear sources
which come from the Earth.
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The natural resources as listed below provide power and energy. It
is for geologists to explore and exploit them.
• Coal is required for domestic and industrial purposes. It is also
used in thermal power plants for power generation. Several
power houses in the country utilise coal for generation of
electricity.
• Petroleum includes oil and natural gas apart from many other
products. We hope you are familiar with the uses of petroleum
products. Can you imagine your world without petrol or diesel?
• Atomic minerals bearing uranium and thorium are important
fuel for nuclear power generation and development of the
country.
• Geothermal Energy is the vast reservoir of heat energy in the
Earth’s interior, of which surface manifestations are the
volcanoes, fumaroles, geysers, steaming grounds and hot
springs. Currently, geothermal energy is being commercially
exploited for the generation of electricity

Engineering Projects Knowledge of geology of the area is extremely

useful and necessary before initiating, during and also in
maintenance of any engineering projects including site selections
such as in;
• Dams: The construction of dams and their site selection depends
on the proper geological investigations.
• Reservoir: The reservoirs are constructed for storage of water
for future use. The site of reservoir, the rocks and its base and
surroundings are geologically investigated prior to its
construction.
• Tunnels: Tunnels for roads, railway lines, underground canals,
power houses are constructed and for their stability geological
studies are necessary.
• Railway lines: For construction of railway lines especially in hilly
terrains the knowledge of specific geological conditions is
necessary.
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• Roads: For construction of roads and highways definite
geological investigations are required because they have to
withstand heavy traffic. It becomes extremely important in the
hilly terrains.
• Bridges: Proper geological studies, like study of catchment area,
maximum volume of water expected to pass through the bridge,
the foundation rocks are necessary for construction of bridges.
 Now you can visualise that how geological studies are
important for the construction of engineering projects.
Without proper geological investigations it may not be even
feasible to complete the project and even if it is completed it
may not be stable

Natural Disaster Management

Geological studies can save the mankind from natural hazards.

The acquaintance with the geology of the area can help
managing the natural disasters and reducing the damage
caused. For example:

a) Earthquakes: We can identify the regions where the

earthquakes may be expected. Therefore construction of
huge structures can be avoided in such earthquake prone
belts. Constructing earthquake proof buildings can also
minimise the effects of earthquakes.
b) Floods: Systematic geological investigations and taking
effective measures can minimise the disaster in the flood
prone regions.
c) Avalanches: Avalanches of rocks/snow are masses which
move downhill under the action of gravity. Precautions
could be taken regarding any construction to minimise
disaster in avalanche prone areas.
d) Sinking: Quarrying, withdrawal of support, underground
water, overloading of areas or earthquake can induce
surface collapse. Such areas can be delineated and safety
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measures can be taken.
e) Landslides: Landslides occur when slopes are destabilised
anthropologically by construction activities, removal of
forest cover, quarrying, river undercutting the base of
adjacent rock or due to tectonic reason. Geologists can
help in proper planning to avert the possible disasters.
 Role of Geologist in Sustainable Agriculture

• Geologists can play a significant role in educating the farmer

or agriculturist and making him/her literate in respect of
his/her land, rock underlying it; the structure and
composition of soil. Geologist can enlighten the farmer with
the concepts like water management, surface and
groundwater resources and rainwater harvesting.
• Agriculture geology deals with this aspect. We have
discussed in this section about how geology plays a
significant role in our lives; as a source of water, energy,
food, minerals, metals and building materials, including
construction of engineering projects and disaster
management and also about the important role played by
geologists in our society.
• Eric Calais in Perkins (2011) mentions that in Geology,
“There’s room for those who love field work and there’s
room for those who don’t”. You have seen that geology is
for everyone as it works for everyone. We are sure that
having read this section you are fascinated about geology
and might be intending to take up geology as your career
option! Now we will discuss about employment prospects
in geology

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 EMPLOYMENT PROSPECTS IN GEOLOGY
List of potential Institutes/Organisations
employing geologists in India

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