CHAPTER 1

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOLOGY

I. DEFINITION OF GEOLOGY
Geology is the science which studies the earth in all its aspects such as its origin,
composition, structure etc. The word geology comes from two Greek words GEO, which
means “Earth”, and LOGY, which means “Study”.
Geologists work in the laboratory and in the field. They collect specimens of rocks,
minerals, and fossils which are then brought to the laboratory for examination and
conclusion.
Rocks are solid portions of the outer part of the earth. Each rock possesses unique
characteristics that make it different from others. The study of these rocks reveals that the
accessible part of the earth constantly evolves with processes which operated on the earth’s
surface in the past and that these same processes are still operating today to produce similar
products as those of the past. These rocks are subjected to different temperature and pressure
conditions.
Some of the rocks contain fossils, which are the remains of organisms contained
buried in them when they were being formed.
II. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND OTHER SUBJECTS.
Geology could be described as a universal science because it makes use of skills and
knowledge from other science disciplines.
- The relationship between geology and physics is called geophysics. Here, physics is used in
the fields of exploration, seismology, and stress analysis etc.
- The relationship between geology and chemistry is referred to as geochemistry. Here, basic
knowledge of chemistry is used in the study of rocks and minerals.
- Geology and biological science are related through Palaeontology, in the study of various
groups of fossils in rocks.

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 - Mathematical formulae are usually applied in determining attitude of beds (dip and strike),
and many other geological calculations in the petroleum and mining industry, as well as in
geotechnical studies.
A sound knowledge of all the other disciplines is therefore imperative in training a
good geologist.

Chemistry

Geochemisty

Palaeontolog
Geophysics

Physics Geology Biology

y
Geomorphology

Geography

Relationship between Geology and other Subjects

III. BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY AND SOME RELATED CAREERS.

The science of geology is divided into many branches some of which include:
1. Astrology. This is study of the origin and nature of planets, stars, and other extraterrestrial
objects. The person who does this is called an Astrogeologist.
2. Mineralogy. This studies the origin, composition, properties, occurrence, and used of
minerals (a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a fixed chemical composition and
highly ordered atomic arrangement). The person who does this is called a mineralogist.
3. Petrology. This is the study of the nature and origin of rocks. The person who does this is
called a petrologist. Rocks of the earth’s crust are divided into 3 broad groups: Igneous,
Metamorphic, and Sedimentary rocks.
4. Palaeontology. This is the study of fossils i.e. remains of dead organisms preserved in rocks.
The person who studies fossils is called a palaeontologist.

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 5. Structural geology. This deals with the types and origin of different stresses which act on
and deform the rocks of the crust. The person who does this is called a structural geologist.
6. Economic geology. This involves the study of economic importance of geological materials,
their modes of exploration and exploitation of these materials. This is the work of an
economic geologist or mining geologist.
7. Environmental geology. This studies the impact of geological processes on the
environment. This is the work of an environmental geologist.
8. Cartography. This involves the study of geological maps. This is the work of a
cartographer.
9. Petroleum geology. This studies the origin, migration, and accumulation of oil and gas, as
well as the search for deposits of these (oil and gas). This is done by a petroleum geologist.
Other careers related to geology are: Volcanologist, hydrologist, marine geologist,
pedologist, teaching etc.
IV. IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY TO MAN.
The study of geology is important to man for the following reasons:
 It is of paramount importance to locate Earth’s energy sources (oil, carbon, nuclear energy)
and mineral resources, how to extract them from the earth and at a lower cost, and with the
smallest impact on the environment.
 It helps us find water resources underground to reduce the impact of water scarcity of people
and civilization. This is vital to global health and wellbeing.
 The study of geology encompasses Earth processes such as earthquake, volcanic activity,
floods, tsunamis, landslides etc which may affect the overall civilization. Therefore,
geologists’ study these processes and can help recommend action plans to minimize damage
in case such events will occur since they cannot be stopped completely.
 The study of geology also reveals the deep history of the Earth.
 Knowledge in geology science will prepare you to understand and take action on critical
global challenges such as global warming, and how to mitigate such changes.
 Geology plays an important role in understanding ground conditions and how buildings,
infrastructure, and people interact with their environment. This is essential to assuring public
safety and wellbeing.

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  Geology is also important for our global food supply through identifying ideal growing areas
and conditions as well as monitoring soil quality.
CHAPTER 2
ASTROLOGEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Astrology, alternatively known as planetary geology is the study of the origin and
nature of celestial or extraterrestrial bodies such as planets and their moons, stars,
asteroids, comets, and meteorites.
A star is a huge sphere of very hot glowing gas held together by its own gravity.
A closed study of the universe reveals the presence of trillions of stars and other rocky
objects. They produce their own light and energy by nuclear fusion. This fusion happens
when lighter elements are forced to become heavier elements. These stars which glow at
night appear relatively small due to their distances away from the earth. The nearest star
beyond the sun called Proxima or Alpha Centauri is more than 40 trillion km away from
the sun.
A constellation of stars form a Galaxy. The galaxy that contains our solar system is
called the Milky Way galaxy.
I. ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE.
The universe is believed to have originated about 15 billion years ago as a dense, hot
globule of gas expanding rapidly outward. At that time, the universe contained nothing
but hydrogen and helium. There were no planets and no stars. The first stars probably
began to form out of hydrogen when the universe was about 100 million years old.
Many theories have been put in place to explain the origin of the universe. Amongst
these theories is the Big Bang Theory which is the most accepted. This theory states that
“The universe originated from a single violent explosion (known as Big Bang) of very
small amount of matter of extremely high density and temperature. According to the
theory, the entire universe was originally compressed to the size of a small ball. This
compression resulted to very high temperatures due to the decay of radioactive elements.
The compressed ball or matter later exploded and scattered all its content in all directions.

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 This explosion is known as the Big Bang and occurred some 15 billion years ago and
created the universe.
After the explosion, the dispersed matter was homogenously distributed in space;
there was no differentiation into galaxies, stars, or planets. When falling temperature was
experience, atoms formed, and then matter collected into galaxies or stars, comets,
asteroids, and meteorites.
 Asteroids are rocky, metallic bodies that orbit the sun. They are made from different kinds
of rocks and metals, with the metals being mostly Nickel and Iron. They are sometimes
called minor planets.
 Comets are small celestial bodies made up of dust and ice that orbit the sun. They are
leftovers from the formation of stars and planets billions of years ago. They develop a tail or
comma when they come close to the sun.
 Meteorites are pieces of rocks or metals that fall to the Earth from space. Most meteorites
come from the break-up of small asteroids that never formed a planet.
N/B: The Big Bang Theory leaves several major questions unanswered. One is
the original cause of the big bang itself. Several answers have been proposed to address
this fundamental question, but none has been proven—and even adequately testing
them has proven to be a formidable challenge.
A Belgian priest named Georges Lemaître first suggested the big bang theory in
the 1920s when he theorized that the universe began from a single primordial atom.

II. NATURE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

The solar system consists of the sun, the planets which revolve around the sun in
orbits, together with other rocky objects like satellites, asteroids, and comets. The solar
system was form 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within
a large molecular cloud.
The sun is the solar system’s star and by far its most massive component. The sun lies
at the center of the solar system. It provides the source of light to the planets and the energy
required by the planets for their activities. The sun is composed of a core made up of heavy
elements like Iron and Nickel surrounded by an envelope of hydrogen and helium.

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 The solar system and its planets

III. POSITIONS AND SIZE OF THE SUN AND ITS PLANETS.

Historically, there has been no scientific definition for planet, leaving astronomers
with the difficult task of properly classifying new discoveries in our solar system. However,
in August 2006, members of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) passed a
resolution that defines a planet.
According to the IAU, a planet is a body that orbits the sun, has enough mass to
create its own gravity that molds it into round shape, and has cleared its
neighbourhood. Unfortunately Pluto, our-one-time “ninth planet” failed to meet the third
condition. It was downgraded and coined a “dwarf planet”.
The planets revolve about the sun in define paths called orbits, with each planet
maintaining a steady orbit and distance away from the sun. The high gravitational
attraction between the sun and its planets maintain all the planets along its equator.
Our solar system today is made up of 8 planets. These planets are grouped into two:
Terrestrial and Jovian planets.
1. Terrestrial planets. These are planets which are closer to the sun, are smaller in size and
denser. They are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
2. Jovian planets. These are planets which are further away from the sun, are generally larger
and lighter. They are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
The furthest planetary bodies away from the sun such as Pluto, Ceres, Haumea,
Makemake, Eris, and Sedna are known as “Dwarf Planets”. They are generally small in
size and lighter.

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 A planet completes an orbit when it goes round the sun once. The time each planet
takes to complete an orbit varies from one planet to another. For example: Mercury which
is the closest planet to the sun completes an orbit 88days while the Earth completes an
orbit of 365.25 days.
Planets are formed through the condensation of particles from small dust particles
called Planetisimals. During the condensation process, heavier elements settled first forming
planetary cores while lighter elements settled later forming the outer layers of the planets.
Satellites are rock bodies orbiting some of the planets. Planets with satellites include
the Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune etc. Satellites are smaller than planets. The Earth’s
natural satellite is called the Moon. The natural satellites of the other planets in the solar
system are also sometimes referred to as moons.

Assignment
- How are planets formed?
- Name all the planets having satellites and those with no satellites.

Average distance Number Average

Period of Period of Mass
Planet from sun (million of diameter
revolution rotation (Earth:1)
km) satellites (km)
Mercury 57.9 88 days 59 days 0 4850km 0.055
Venus 108.2 224 days 243 days 0 12.756km 0.815
Earth 149.6 365.25 days 24 hours 1 12.756km 1
Mars 227.9 687 days 24hrs-37mins 2 6790km 0.108
Jupiter 778.3 11.9 years 9hrs-40mins 63 142.980km 95.3
Saturn 1.427 12 years 10hrs 33 120536km 14.6
Uranus 2.870 84 years 17hrs 27 51.118km 17.2
Neptune 4.497 165 years 16hrs 13 4950km 0.02

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 Characteristics of the planets in the solar system
N/B: The Earth is the only planet known where life exists. Almost 1.5 million species of
animals and plants have been discovered so far, and many more have yet to be found.
While other planets may have small amounts of ice or steam, the Earth is 2/3 water.
Earth has perfect conditions for a breathable atmosphere.

Planets and their moons

IV. THE MOON (The Earth’s satellite)

A moon is the natural satellite of the Earth, visible (chiefly at night) by reflected light
from the sun that revolves (orbit) around a planet. The Moon is the second brightest object
in Earth’s sky, after the Sun, and has accordingly been an object of wonder and speculation
for people since earliest times. Although the Moon appears bright to the eye, it reflects on
average only 12% of the light that falls on it. This reflectivity, called albedo, of 0.12 is
similar to that of coal dust.
The planets vary in the number of moons; for example, Mercury and Venus have
none, the Earth has one, Jupiter has 17 or more etc.
Characteristics of the Moon

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 The moon lacks a significant atmosphere, which eliminates erosion due to weather.
 It has no liquid and is lifeless.
 Its diameter is 3,479km, with density 3,340kg/m3 (3/5 that of earth).
 The Moon moves in an elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around Earth at an average distance of
384,400 km and at an average speed of 3,700 km/h. Therefore, it completes one revolution
in 28 days (27 days 7 hours 43 minutes). For the moon to go from one phase to the next
similar phase as seen from Earth, requires 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes. This period is
called a lunar month.
 The Moon rotates once on its axis in the same period of time that it circles Earth.
 It does not have any form of plate tectonics.
 It has a lower gravity.
 Because of its small size, it cooled more rapidly.
 It is a differentiated body, with a crust, mantle, and core.
Formation of the Moon
The origin of the moon is still not yet clear. Some Astronomers say, the moon is
believed to have formed from the remains of a massive planet whose gravitational pull
could no longer attract additional material. This un-attracted material became ringed with
debris. This debris was then collected into lumps to form the moon.
However, samples of rocks from the moon obtained during the Appollo Missions
reveal a composition slightly different from that of the Earth. The rocks composed of similar
terrestrial material mixed with materials from a once existing planet which collided with the
earth more than 4 billion years ago. The moon, therefore, might have resulted from the
collision of the Earth with a planetary body which is not a well known planet.
Surface Features of the Moon
The lunar landscape is characterized by impact craters, their ejecta, a few
volcanoes, hills, lava flows, and depressions filled by magma.
The surface features of the moon are divided into 2 portions: The Bright and Dark Zones.
1. The Lighter Surface is called the Lunar Highlands.
2. The Darker Plains are called Maria or Mare.

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 The Lunar Highlands are Anorthositic (Anorthosite - rich in Ca and Al Feldspar
Silicates) in composition, whereas, Maria is Basaltic in composition. Maria often coincides
with “Lowlands” but it is important to note that, the lowlands are not always covered by
Maria. Maria like the rest of the moon is devoid of water and is known to be the major
products of volcanic activity on the moon. Maria equally has lunar canyons known as
volcanic rills, which are ancient channels used by lava flow.

Maria

Lunar
Highlands

A photograph of full moon taken from the Earth

Phases of the moon

Draw diagram on page 5 (textbook)

Assignment
1. Define the following

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 a. Rock. b. Mineral. d. Milky Way Galaxy e. Meteorites. f. Comets. g. Asteriods.
2. Why is Pluto, our-one-time ninth planet no longer considered as a planet?
3. What is the composition of the sun?
4. Differentiate between the following
a) Lunar highlands and Maria. b) Sun and moon. c) A Star and a planet

V. THE EARTH’S SHELLS AND PHYSICAL STATES.

The Earth is the third planet from the sun in terms of distance and fifth in the solar
system in terms of size and mass. The Earth’s polar radius is about 6,357km; its equatorial
radius is 6,378km. This gives a true shape of the Earth called an Oblate Spheroid or Geoid.
The term “oblate” refers to its slightly oblong appearance while the term “spheroid” means
that it is almost a sphere, but not quite.
The Earth consists of air, water, and land. This gives the appellation technically
recognized as Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere. About 29% of the Earth’s
surface is occupied by land and 70% is covered by water. The highest peak being Mt.
Evarest (8.9km) and the deepest part is in the ocean of the North West Pacific, called the
Mariana trench.
A. THE ATMOSPHERE.
The atmosphere is an envelope of gases which surrounds the Earth. These gases
include: Oxygen (21%), Nitrogen (78%), CO2, CH4, NH3, SO2, Water vapour etc.
Besides these gases, the atmosphere also contains varied amount of solid substances such as
dust particles, bacteria, salt blown from the sea etc. Thus, there would have been no life
on Earth in the absence of the atmosphere.
The nature of the atmosphere changes with increasing distance from the Earth’s
surface. Because of these changes, the atmosphere is divided into 4 main layers from the
closest to the furthest from the Earth. They are: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
and Thermosphere.

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1. Troposphere.
This is the layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earth’s surface. It extends up to
about 10-15km above the Earth’s surface and it is about 11-13km thick. This thickness
varies greatly depending on latitude, temperature, seasons etc. In this layer, there is
fluctuating pressure distribution which causes air packet.
The limit or boundary between the troposphere and overlying stratosphere is called
Tropopause. Most wind and clouds develop, and weather phenomena occur within the
troposphere because, the tropopause act like an invisible barrier preventing warm air from
going beyond it since the air above it (stratosphere) is warmer and lighter.
Heat from the sun warms the Earth’s surface and but most of it is radiated and sent
back into space. Water vapour and CO2 in the troposphere trap some of this heat, preventing
it from escaping, thus keeps the Earth warm. This trapping of heat is called the Green House
Effect (GHE).
2. Stratosphere.
This is the layer that lies directly above the troposphere and is about 35km deep. It
extends from about 15-50km above the Earth’s surface. This layer is free from fluctuating
pressure distribution, thus lacking air packets, and clouds are absent. It is warmer at the top
than at the bottom because the lower portion has a fairly constant temperature with height
but in the upper portion, the temperature increases with attitude due to absorption of sunlight
by ozone.
The limit between the stratosphere and the layer above it (mesosphere) is called
Stratopause. The stratosphere is important for airplane flight.
The stratosphere contains a thin layer of Ozone molecules (with 3 oxygen
molecules) which forms a protective layer shielding the Earth from the Sun’s harmful

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 ultraviolet radiation. But this ozone layer is being depleted and is getting thinner over
Europe, Asia, North America, and Antarctica. “Holes” are appearing in the ozone layer.
3. Mesosphere.
This is the layer directly above the stratosphere. It extends from 50-80km above the
Earth’s surface.
It is a cold layer where the temperature gradually decreases with increasing attitude.
The limit between the mesosphere and the thermosphere is called the Mesopause.
4. Thermosphere.
The thermosphere extends from 80km above the Earth’s surface to the outer space.
The temperature is hot due to extraordinary large amount of energy received from the sun.
The thermosphere corresponds to the Heterosphere, a zone where there is no uniform
distribution of gases. In contrast, the gases in the Homosphere (Troposphere, Stratosphere,
and Mesosphere) are uniformly distributed. The exosphere exists outside the thermosphere.

B. THE HYDROSPHERE.
This includes all natural water bodies of the earth such as oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,
and streams.
It also includes underground water such as springs, wells, and water found in pores
and fissures of rocks.
In contrast to the hydrosphere, the Biosphere is the totality of all organisms both
plants and animals.

C. THE LITHOSPHERE.
This is the solid part of the Earth which underlies the atmosphere and hydrosphere. It
is made up of the crust and the upper part of the upper mantle. It has an average thickness of
100km. It is composed of rocks and minerals, which in turn comprise the continental masses
and ocean basins.
The solid Earth is sub divided into three distinct layers namely; Crust, Mantle and
Core. Each layer or shell is separated from the other by a boundary which is marked by a
change in density of the rocks or a change in the physical state of the rocks. These

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 boundaries are called . These discontinuities were identified by geoscientist by studying the
depth at which earthquake waves velocities suddenly change since the waves travel at
different velocities through different materials or layers of the Earth.

1) Crust.
This is the outermost layer of the Earth. It has an average thickness of 10km beneath
the ocean and 35km beneath the continents. Rocks of the crust are solid and rigid. The
crust is divided into two parts: Upper crust and Lower crust.
 The upper (continental) crust is rich in Si and Al. This is commonly referred to as SIAL. It
is granitic in composition. It is thicker and less dense than the material below and is
restricted only to the continents.
 The lower (oceanic) crust is rich in elements such as Si and Mg. This is commonly referred
to as SIMA. It is basaltic in composition. It is thinner and denser than the upper crust. It is
continuous, extending below the continents and the oceans.
The continental crust is separated from the oceanic by the Conrad discontinuity.
Density of the continental crust is 2.55g/cm3 and that of the oceanic crust is 2.85g/cm3. The
crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovicic discontinuity. This boundary is
occurs at a depth of 35km, found at the base of the crust.
Differences between the continental crust and oceanic crust

Oceanic crust Continental crust

It is thinner beneath the oceans where it is about It is generally much thicker beneath the
8km thick. continent, about 65km thick.
It is relatively denser and heavier 2.9g/cm3 It is less dense and lighter 2.7g/cm3
Composed of basaltic rocks i.e. rich in Si and Mg. Granitic in composition i.e. rich in Si and Al.
High heat flow Low heat flow
It is less buoyant Has great buoyancy
Recycling is present. Recycling is absent.
It is younger than the continent (20 million years). Older than the oceanic crust (4 billion years)
The velocity of P-waves is 5.57km/sec and S- The velocity of P-waves is 6.5km/sec and S-

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waves 3.36km/sec. waves 3.74km/sec

2) Mantle.
Beneath the crust lies the mantle which makes up over 80% of the Earth’s volume
(the largest part).It has an average thickness of about 2865km extending from 35km above
marked by the Mohorovicic discontinuity which separates it from the crust and 2900km
below the Earth by the Gutenberg discontinuity which separates it from the Core below.
The mantle has a high density, composed of peridotite (an ultramafic silicate rock rich
in Mg and Fe). This rock though rare at the surface is the most abundant in our planet. This
rock can flow when subjected to long duration of stress.
The mantle is divided into two: the Upper Mantle and Lower Mantle.
 Upper mantle. It is made up of the asthenosphere and the base of the lithosphere. It extends
to a depth of 660km. It densityis3.4g/cm3. It is plastic in state containing hard rocks like
Peridotite, Eclogite, and minerals such as olivine, spinel, garnet, pyroxenes etc. The upper-
most part of the upper mantle is solid and rigid. Thus, together with the crust, they are
collectively known as the Lithosphere.
 Lower mantle. This is a little-known layer. It extends from 660km -2900km.It is also
plastic in state. It slow- moving currents, called convection currents, are caused by
temperature variations. Its density is 4.4g/cm3.
Below the lithosphere, lies a transition zone which is molten with partially melted
rocks called the Asthenosphere (Low Velocity Zone). The boundary between the
lithosphere and asthenosphere occurs where temperature reaches about 1280oC and at
temperatures higher than this, mantle rocks become soft enough to flow. It is compost of
molten rock, on top of which the lithospheric plates slide. It is a part of the mantle,
approximately 100km thick, with very little strength. The upper and lower boundaries of the
asthenosphere are diffuse (not very clear) as they involve gradual changes in the rigidity of
the mantle, not a change in composition. The asthenosphere lies between a depths of 100 to
150km.

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3) Core.
The core is the innermost layer of the Earth extending from a depth of 2900km-
6378km. it is the densest layer (about 7.2g/cm3) of the Earth and the source of the
Earth’s gravity as well as the Earth’s magnetic fields. The core is rich in Nickel (Ni) and
Iron (Fe) thus called NIFE.
The core is divided into two layers: Outer Core (2900-5140) and Inner Core (5140-
6378km).
 The Outer Core is liquid and extends to a depth of 5140km. The density of the outer core
suggests that it may be composed mainly of Fe and a small proportion of Ni and Sulphur.
 The Inner Core is solid and extends to a depth of 6378km. It has the same composition as
the outer core.
Temperatures in the core are so high that the iron and nickel melts, and thus the outer
core is a very dense molten metal. The temperature of the inner core is between 4,400°C to
6,600°C. This is hotter than the outer core but the metals remains in the solid state due to the
immense pressures created by the weight of the overlying outer core and mantle.
The outer core is separated from the inner core by the Lehmann discontinuity. This
discontinuity occurs at about 5140km and indicates a change in physical states of the rocks
from liquid in the outer core to solid in the inner core. This change in state may be regarded
as the product of crystallization of iron which is the main component, under very high
pressure. Information about the variation in state, and density of the different Earth
shells has been obtained by the use of seismic studies.

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 Cross section of the Earth
CHAPTER 3
SEISMOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Seismology can be defined as the study of earthquakes. This study, involves the
production, nature, investigation of earthquakes and the transmission of earthquakes
waves through the earth.
I. ORIGIN AND DEFINITION.
An earthquake can be defined as the trembling, shaken and sudden movements of
the ground due to the rapid release of energy stored in rocks beneath the Earth’s
surface. The release of this energy generates seismic wave or vibrations which move out
in all directions from the point of origin called the Focus or hypocenter. This point of
origin can be on or within the Earth’s interior. The point on the Earth’s surface directly
above the earthquake focus is called the Epicenter. The first wave to arrive the Earth’s
surface originates from the epicenter.
The main or major earthquake may be preceded by smaller quakes called foreshocks
(which possibly result from the development of the smaller cracks in the vicinity of what
will be the major rupture). Smaller earthquakes called aftershocks, occur days to months
following a large earthquake and are often ten times smaller than the main shock.

Block diagram showing earthquake

Focus and Epicenter.
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A. The Elastic Rebound Theory
This is the gradual accumulation and release of stress and strain resulting to the
sudden elastic rebound of previously stored energy forming earthquakes. This theory is an
explanation for how energy is spread during earthquakes.
According to this theory, the elastic property of rocks permits energy to be stored
during deformation by tectonic forces. When the strain exceeds the strength of zones of
weakness of the Earth’s crust (along fault), opposite sides of the fault slip, it generate elastic
waves that travels through the earth. The resulting shocks may result from small tremors to
severe earthquakes that may cause damage.
Example: explain what happens when you bend a tree branch.

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 B. Causes Of Earthquakes
Earthquakes can be generated
 By a sudden rupture of rocks along a fault. The sudden rupture of the rocks produces shock
waves or seismic waves called earthquake waves that shake the ground.
 At a boundary between two plates, when the stress in the rocks exceeds their strengths.
 By volcanic activity, where they either proceed or accompany eruptions.
 Also, the impacts of meteorites, undersea landslides and explosions of nuclear bombs can
also generate earthquake.
In general, Earthquakes are commonly caused by sudden movement along faults,
especially faulting related to plate boundaries.

II. SEISMIC WAVES.

A seismic wave is the energy in wave form which radiate in all directions from
the focus. The wave dissipates with distance from the focus. Earthquake energy travels
through rock and sediment in the form of waves. These waves are called seismic or
earthquake waves. Such waves can be felt when you hold one end of a brick and strike the
other end with a hammer.
Energy released during a quake is manifested or transmitted in the form of waves:
body and surface waves whose velocity in rocks depends on certain physical
characteristics of the rocks through which the waves are propagated such as rigidity,
density and state of the rock (solid, liquid and gas).
Seismic waves can be distinguished by a number of properties including:
 The speed the waves propagate.
 The direction that the waves move particles as they pass by.
 Where the waves don’t pass through.

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A. Types Of Seismic Wave
Seismic waves are grouped into two types: Body waves and Surface waves.
1. Body waves.
Body waves are waves that travel or propagate through the body (within) of the Earth
spreading outward from the focus in all direction. They are two types of body waves:
Primary waves (P-waves) and Secondary waves (S-waves).
a. Primary or P-Waves or Compressional or Longitudinal Waves.
These are the fastest type of seismic waves and the first to arrive the recording station.
They have the following characteristics:
 They are the fastest waves and the first to arrive the recording station.
 They have a high frequency and a short-wavelength.
 They can travel through solids, liquids and gas.
 They can be reflected and refracted through materials of the Earth.
 They can change into S-waves in some conditions.
 They produce relatively small displacements of the ground.
 The ground is forced to move forwards and backwards as it is compressed and
decompressed.
 The travel time of P-waves is = distance from earthquake divided by P-wave speed.
V= distance / speed.
 Their velocity averages 4-7km/sec.
 They deformed solids by change in volume.
b. Secondary waves or S-waves, or transverse or Shear waves.
 These are the second fastest waves and the second to arrive the recording station.
 Like P-waves, they have a high frequency and short-wavelength.
 They can only travel through a solid medium and cannot travel though a liquid medium.
 Like P-waves, they can also be reflected and refracted.

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 They cannot change into P-waves.
 They are responsible for the sideways displacement of walls and fences, leaving them S-
shaped on the surface of the Earth.
 They move in all direction away from their source, at speeds which depend upon the density
of the rocks through which they are moving.
 The travel time of S-waves is = distance from earthquake divided by S-wave speed.
V= distance / speed.
 Their velocity averages 2-5km/sec
 They deform solids by change in shape.

2. Surface waves
Surface waves are low frequency seismic waves with a long-wavelength. They are
created closed to the epicenter and travel on the Earth’s surface away from the epicenter, just
like water waves spreading outward when a pebble is thrown into a pond. They are the
slowest wave to arrive a seismological station and they causes more property damage than
body waves because they produce ground movement in a circular manner, travel more
slowly and take a longer time to pass. Together with secondary effects such as landslides,
fires, and tsunamis, these waves account for the loss of lives and property due to their high
amplitude of vibrations.
There are two types of surface waves namely: love wave and Rayleigh.
a) Love waves (L-waves)
 They have long periods and travel around the periphery of the Earth
 They produce low frequency transverse vibrations which develop just around the epicenter.
 They vibrate the ground in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the direction of wave
movement.
 They are the slowest of all the waves.
 They have large amplitude of vibrations which decrease with depth.
 The speed depends on the wave’s period.
 The velocity averages 2-6km/sec.
 They cause the ground to ripple forth and back, producing a snake like movement.
b) Rayleigh waves (R-waves).

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 They are the slowest of all the seismic wave types and in some ways are more complicated.
 They decrease with amplitude with depth
 Typical speeds are on the order of 1-5km/sec.
 They cause the ground to move in an elliptical movement opposite to the direction of wave
propagation.
 They cause ground to ripple up and down.

Types of seismic waves

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III. Methods of evaluating Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude
Some earthquakes shake the ground violently; whereas others can barely be felt. The
determination of the relative energy generated by an earthquake involves the measurement of
both its Intensity and Magnitude. This intensity and magnitude of earthquake are
determined using two scales: The Mercalli scale and Richter scale respectively.
 Mercalli intensity scale
The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of damage
caused by an earthquake. The Mercalli scale measures the intensity of an earthquake.
The scale has 12 levels of intensity with each level defined by a group of observable
earthquake effects, such as shaking of the ground and damage to structures such as buildings,
roads, and bridges. These levels are designated by Roman Numerals graduated from I to XII.
The higher the Roman numbers on the scale, the greater the earthquake intensity. The
Mercalli scale depends on the visual quantification of the amount of damage. It is not
measured using a machine, so it can vary with location for a given earthquake. The intensity
is greater at the epicenter and progressively decreases away from it.

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 Richter scale.
Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the amount of strain energy released
when an earthquake occurs. The amount of strain energy represents the maximum amplitude
of ground motion at a specific distance from the epicenter that is measured by a
seismograph. Amplitude of ground motion is the amount of up and down or back and forth
motion of the ground. The larger the ground motion, the greater the magnitude. The Richter
scale and the moment magnitude scale are used to measure the magnitude of an
earthquake. The Richter scale is graduated from 1 to 10 with each number describing an
earthquake independently of its effects on people, objects or buildings.

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 A seismometer is an instrument that detects earth motions. A seismograph is an
instrument that detects, magnifies, and records motions of the earth caused by earthquakes or
explosions. The resulting record by the seismograph is called a seismogram.

A Typical Seismograph A Typical Seismogram

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 A Typical Seismogram

IV. Localization of Earthquakes on a Global Scale.

When we look at the world map showing the distribution of modern earthquake, it is
seen that, they tend to cluster along certain zones or belts on the Earth’s surface. This means
that, Earthquakes are distributed unevenly on the globe. These belts correspond to regions
of more recently formed fold mountains chains where the rocks are crumbled and faulted
or in major fault lines. It has been observed that most of the destructive earthquakes originate

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 within two well-defined zones or belts namely: The Circum-Pacific Belt and the
Mediterranean-Himalayan Seismic belt.
1. The Circum-Pacific Belt:
The Circum-Pacific Belt which encircles the rim of the Pacific Ocean has the
maximum concentration of earthquakes. This belt follows the western highlands of South
and North America passing through the Aleutian Islands and South to Japan, East
China, East Indies and New Zealand. About 80 percent of all the terrestrial earthquakes
are concentrated in this belt. This ring coincides with the Circum Pacific Ring of Fire.
2. The Mediterranean-Himalayan belt:
The Mediterranean-Himalayan Seismic belt runs from Gibraltar to the East via the
Atlas mountains, the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Balkan mountains, the mountain
chains of Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Hindu- kush, the Himalayas, the mountain chains
of Burma and the islands of Indonesia, where it meets the Circum-Pacific belt in the
north of Australia.
Apart from the above two belts, a number of shallow-focus earthquakes also occur in
the zones of mid-oceanic ridges as well as in the body of the volcano or in its peripheral
parts during eruption. It is noticed that the present earthquake regions are associated with the
younger fold-mountain regions and the present earthquake activity is a phase of the end of
the Alpine-Orogeny.
Three groups of earthquakes can be identified depending on the depth of their foci.
They are: shallow focus, intermediate and deep focus earthquakes.
- Shallow Focus Earthquake. This is an earthquake with focus less than 100km. It occurs in
all the three types of plate boundaries.
- Intermediate Earthquake. This is the type with focus ranging 100 – 300km. It occurs at
destructive plate boundaries.
- Deep Focus Earthquake. This is the type with focus ranging 300 – 700km. It also occurs at
the destructive plate boundaries.
N.B Some earthquakes occur in the interior of the Earth and are not related to plate
boundaries, active rifts and collision zones. Intra-plate earthquakes account for about

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5% of earthquake energy released in a year. Almost all have a sharp focus and are caused by
forces applied to plate boundaries which can make pre-existing faults to weaken

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V. PREDICTION OF EARTHQUAKES.
Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which
earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically
reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. Some seismologists try
to predict how likely it is that an earthquake will occur, with a specific time, place, and size.
 They use the growing catalogue or recorded earthquakes to estimate when and where strong
seismic motions may occur.
 They map past earthquakes to help determine expected rates of repetition.
 They can also measure movement along major fault using Global Positioning Satellites
(GPS) to track the relative movement of the rocky crust of a few centimeters each year along
faults. This may help predict earthquakes.
 Seismologists have also developed field methods to date the years in which past earthquakes
occurred. They look into geologic history for information about earthquakes that occurred
before people had instruments to measure them.
 Some scientists claim watching animal behavior is also crucial as horse becomes skittish and
snakes leave their holes shortly before a quake.

VI. MONITORING EARTHQUAKES.

Many instruments can be used to monitor a quake as seen below:
 Creep-meters. A creep-meter measures fault slip by recording the displacement between 2
monuments located on opposite sides of the fault, spaced 30 meters apart.
 Pore Pressure Monitors. These instruments record fluid pressure changes in deep boreholes
that may be driven by fault activity. Measurements can be made to better than 0.1 millibar.
 A seismometer is used to pick up the vibrations in the Earth's crust. An increase in
vibrations may indicate a possible earthquake.

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 Strain meters. These instruments monitor the change in crustal strain near active faults and
volcanoes associated with fault slip, earthquakes, and volcanic activity with precision of less
than 1 part per billion (i.e. less than 1 inch in 16,000 miles).
 Tilt meters. Tilt meters are highly sensitive instruments used to measure ground tilt
(rotation) near faults and volcanoes caused by fault slip and volcanic uplift.
Effects or impacts of earthquake
1. Shaking and ground rupture. Shaking and rupture are the main effects created by
earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid
structures. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams,
bridges, nuclear power stations, etc.
2. Landslides and avalanches. Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, and
coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslide, which
is a major geological hazard.
3. Fires. Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. For example;
more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the
earthquake itself.
4. Soil liquefaction. This is provoked by shaking, as water-saturated granular material such as
sand temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction
may cause rigid structures, like buildings, to tilt, or sink into liquefied deposits. For example,
in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the
ground, eventually collapsing upon them.
5. Tsunamis. These are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or
abrupt movement of large volumes of water. It can travel 600-800km per hour depending on
the water depth. Large waves produced by earthquakes or a submarine landslides can
overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of
kilometres across the open ocean and wreak destructions on far shores hours after the
earthquake that generate them. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of
magnitudes 7.5 or more.
6. Floods. A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. They occur usually
when the volume of water within a body such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of

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 the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter
of the body. They are the secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged by them, it
results to flooding.

VII. MANAGEMENT OF EARTHQUAKES.

Earthquake cannot be prevented despite various strategies used by seismologists to
predict the events, but the damage they cause can be greatly reduced with communication
(using earthquake monitoring and warning systems), proper structural design, emergency
preparedness planning, education, and safer building standards.
 Structural design. Geologist and engineers use geologic hazard maps and seismic zoning
maps, to understand where faults are located and how to build near them safely.
 Emergency preparedness planning. Earthquake education and preparedness plans can help
significantly to reduce death and injury caused by earthquakes. People can take several
preventive measures within their homes and at office to reduce risk.
 Communication strategies. Emergency agencies have developed extensive earthquake
response plans. Here, seismographs are stationed in urban areas and linked to the central
office. Within few minutes of an earthquake, the magnitude can be determine, the epicenter
mapped, and intensity of shaking information can be distributed through radio, TV, etc to aid
in response efforts.
For example, in seismically active regions of the world such as Japan, within the East
African Rift Valley, and around the flanks of Mt. Cameroon, warning systems have been
installed aimed at a continuous monitoring of the earthquake hazards in an attempt to reduce
their impacts on the communities within these areas.

Security Measures in Case Earthquake

a. Before the earthquake.
 Learn first Aid assistance.
 Encourage people about the risks and safeguard security instructions.

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 Locate the right place where people can take shelter away from electricity objects, gaz
cuttings, water bodies, trees etc.
 Make available media such as radios, televisions, etc.
b. During the earthquake.
 Stay calm and remain inside the house (if found inside) by placing yourself to a solid wall
i.e. under a door column, or under a solid furniture etc.
 But if you are outside the house, stay calm and remain outside.
 Stay away from trees and what may collapse such as buildings, bridges, electricity lines etc.
 If you are inside the car, stop the car away from collapse structures, remain inside and do not
go out before the end of safety.
c. After the earthquake.
 Stay calm and check if there are injured people,
 Give first Aid to the injured.
 Don’t touch electricity fields on the ground.
 Direct yourself in a free space such as parks, stadiums etc.
 Listen to media about the security assistance for you to understand and know what to do in
times of need.

CHAPTER 4
VOLCANICITY
INTRODUCTION

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