General Geology Lecture One Dr. Harith E.

Aljubury

GENERAL GEOLOGY

For more information about Geology, you can read:

 Physical Geology (15th ed.) [Plummer, Carlson, Hammersley, 2016].

 Understanding Earth (7th ed.) [J. Grotzinger, T. H. Jordan, 2014].
 Essentials of Geology (4th Ed.) [Stephen Marshak, 2013]

Introduction:

GEOLOGY: Or (also called Geoscience and/or Earth-science) is the scientific

study of the Earth, which examine the earth, how its formed and composition, and
the changes that have undergone and undergoing. And Physical geology is about
how the Earth works.

Geology in general is divided into two broad areas:

1- Physical geology: is the study of earth’s materials as well as the processes

that operate within and on the surface of the earth, i.e., the formation and
composition of this planet, the causes of earthquakes and ice ages, mountain
building and the evolution of life …etc.
2- Historical geology: examines the origin and evolution of earth, its contents,
oceans, atmosphere and the record of life’s evolution, and the history of
climate change as well.

Uses of Geological sciences and their applications:

Geology addresses practical problems such as how to keep pollution out of

groundwater, how to find oil and energy resources, useful minerals, and how to
avoid natural hazards such as landslides. And in recent years, geologists have made
significant contributions to the study of global climate changes.

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General Geology Lecture One Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

Here are some examples:

1. Exploration for ore-minerals, oil and gas.

2. Environmental problems: hazards of flooding, glaciation, rocks stability.
3. Ground and underground water for irrigation and drinking water.
4. Pollution in soil, water and gas. They are organic and chemical pollution.
5. Geologic engineers: location of dams and power plant, buildings and
foundations.
6. Monitoring earthquake and volcanic activity.
7. Mining: extraction of Sulphur, phosphates, iron… etc.

Disciplines of Geology and their broad relationship to the other sciences:

 Geochemistry: Chemical composition and behavior of materials in the

Earth, and chemical reactions in natural Environments.
 Paleontology: Fossils (micro, macro) & the evolution of life as preserved in
the rock record.
 Geochronology: Time and history of earth, i.e., the age (in years) of
geologic materials.
 Environmental geology: Interactions between the environment and
geologic materials, and the contamination of the near-surface realm of the
Earth by pollutants.
 Mineralogy: Physical properties, structure, and chemical behavior of
minerals.
 Petrology: Rocks (Rock-types) and their characterizations.
 Economic geology: study of minerals and energy resources.

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General Geology Lecture One Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

 Hydrogeology Groundwater resource, its movement, and its reaction with

rock & soil.
 Geophysics: Physical characteristics of the Earth (such as the Earth’s
magnetic field and gravity field) and causes of forces that affect the Earth.
 Seismology: Earthquakes and the Earth’s interior as revealed by earthquake
waves.
 Geomorphology: Land forms and their evolution.
 Structural geology: Rock deformation (bending and breaking) in response
to the application of force associated with mountain Building.
 Tectonics: The origin and significance of regional-scale geologic features.
 Stratigraphy/sedimentology: The succession of sedimentary rock layers
and the record of Earth’s history that they contain.
 Oceanography: Study of oceans/seas and their components.
 Volcanology: The scientific study of volcanoes, eruptions, products, and
volcanic hazards.

The solar system:

The sun, and its nine plants and their moons, together with smaller objects such as
asteroids and comets, are forming the solar system. Despite the diversity of its
members, the solar system shows many regularities.

The origin of the solar system: The Modern Nebular theory:

About 4.6 billion years ago a great explosion took place, the solar system formed
from a rotating cloud of interstellar matter. Eventually, as this cloud condensed, it
collapsed under the influence of gravity and flattened into a rotating disk. Within
this rotating disk, the sun, planets and moons formed from turbulent eddies of
nebular gases and solids. The central condensation eventually formed the Sun,

2
General Geology Lecture One Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

while small condensations in the disk formed the planets and their satellites (Fig.
1). Four of these planets were lithified. The energy from the young Sun blew away
the remaining gas and dust, leaving the Solar System as we see it today.

Fig. 1: Solar system shows the sun and their planets, satellites and asteroids.

The Earth system (Earth’s Sphere):

Is a small part of the larger solar system, but it is, of course, very important to us.
The Earth system has its components, which can be thought of as its subsystems
(Fig. 2). We refer to these as Earth systems (plural). These systems, or “spheres,”
are the Atmosphere, the Hydrosphere, the Biosphere, and the Geosphere.

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General Geology Lecture One Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

Earth's Spheres:

1. The Atmosphere: the gases that envelop the Earth, the gaseous portion of
our planet.
2. The Hydrosphere: is the water on or near Earth’s surface, the water portion
of our planet. The hydrosphere includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and
glaciers of the world. Earth is unique among the planets in that two-thirds of
its surface is covered by oceans.
3. The Biosphere: is all of the living or once-living material on Earth; the parts
of the solid earth, hydrosphere, and atmosphere in which living organism
can be found.
4. The Geosphere, or solid Earth system: is the rock and other inorganic
Earth material that make up the bulk of the planet. It is the largest of earth's
major spheres.

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General Geology Lecture One Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

Fig. 2: Show the four Earth's spheres and the interference between them

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 Lecture 2
Earth's system dynamic
The Earth:
Dynamicity of the Earth:
Input --- Earth materials/ Components
Output --- Internal processes – External processes
As mentioned earlier, the earth formed from one of the swirling eddies of
nebular material 4.6 billion years ago and by at least 3.8 billion years ago, it
had differentiated into its present-day structure. It either accreted as solid
body which then underwent differentiated under a period of heating of the
core, mantle and crust condensed in a sequence from cooling cloud of
nebular gas.

Formation of Earth
Much more precise measurements have shown that Earth is not a perfect
sphere. Owing to its daily rotation, the planet bulges out slightly at its
equator, so that it is slightly squashed at the poles. In addition, the smooth
curvature of Earth's surface is disturbed by changes in the ground elevation.
This TOPOGRAPHY is measured with respect to sea level, a smooth surface
that conforms closely with the squashed spherical shape expected for the
rotating Earth. Many features of geological significance stand out in Earth's
topography (FIGURE 1), such as the continental mountain belts and the
deep ocean trenches. The elevation of the solid surface changes by nearly
20 km from the highest point in the Himalayan Mountains (Mount Everest
at 8848 m above sea level) to the lowest point in the Pacific Ocean
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(Challenger Deep, southern Marianas trenches at 11,030 m below sea
level). Although the Himalaya loom large to us, their elevation is a small
fraction of Earth's radius, only about one part in a thousand, which is why
the globe looks like a smooth sphere from outer space.

Figure 1: Earth Topography measured with respect to sea level

Earth’s interior:
The information about the earth structures acquired from multiple sources.
Deep parts of Earth are studied indirectly, and the main source of
information comes from the seismic waves received on ground surface.
There are two basic types of body waves (seismic waves) to explore the
Earth’s interior: Compressional waves (P-waves) which expand and
compress as they travel through solid, liquid or gas (figure 2a).

2
Shear waves (S-waves) which involves side-to-side motion (shearing).

Shear waves can propagate only through solids and not through fluids (such
as air and water) (figure 2b).

Figure 2: Types of waves to explore the Earth’s interior.

Early in earth’s history, the sorting of materials by chemical compositions

(and density) differences resulted of three layers formations based on their
seismic velocity, which depend also on their composition and mineral
structure, this divisions are: crust, mantle, and core (see Fig. 3 and 4).

Earth's divisions (layers) according to their chemical compositions are:

1- Crust: the very thin outermost layer of earth, Solid 0.2-0.6% of the Earth’s
radius, (0-40 km thick) 0.4% of Earth's mass. It consists of two different
types: continental crust and oceanic crust.

-Continental crust: the continental crust consists of many rock types. the
continental crust averages 35 to 40 km thick but may exceed 70 km in some
mountainous regions such as Rockies and Himalayas.

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-Ocean crust: the oceanic crust in roughly 7 kilometers thick and composed
of the dark igneous rocks (basalt). The oceanic crust has a relatively
homogeneous chemical composition.

 Mantle – Crust boundary called Mohorovičić or Moho discontinuity.

2- Mantle: the thick layers of earth located below the crust, Solid (40-2900
km thick), which form 67.1% of Earth’s mass. Mantle consists of:

- Upper mantle: upper mantle can be divided into two different parts.

Lithosphere: the rigid outer layer of earth, including the crust and upper
mantel.

Asthenosphere: A subdivision of the mantle situated below the lithosphere.

This zone of weak material (elastic) exists below a depth of about 100 km
and in some regions extends as deep as 700 km. The rock within this zone
is easily deformed.

-Transition zone is part of the Earth's mantle, and is located between the
lower mantle and the upper mantle, between a depth of 410 and 660 km.

- Lower mantle: the part of the mantle that extend from the core–mantle
boundary to a depth of 660 km.

 Core-Mantle boundary called Gutenberg discontinuity.

3- The Core: located beneath the mantle, it is the innermost layer of the
Earth. The composition of core is thought to be an iron-nickel (see Fig. 4).

The core is divided into an outer and inner core,

- Outer core: A layer beneath the mantle about 2200 km thick that has the
properties of a liquid, extends (2900-5155 km), 30.8% of Earth’s mass.

4
- Inner core: the solid innermost layer of earth, about 1300 km radius,
(5155-6371 km thick), 1.7% of Earth’s mass (~2/3 size of the moon).

Figure 3: The sketch shows the internal structures of the earth. The right side shows the structure
divisions according to the physical properties, and the left side is divided depending on the chemical
composions of earth's materials.

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 Figure 4: Earth’s layers and their composition

The Geoscientists divided the earth's interior according to the physical

properties (e.g., viscosity) of materials as well, these divisions are (see right
side of Fig. 2):
1- Lithosphere, 2- Asthenosphere, 3- Mesosphere, and 4- The Core (Inner &
outer). We will explain these layers in details below.
-Lithosphere (from the Greek lithos meaning” stone”) is relatively rigid
(non-flowable) layer that lies between the surface and a depth of about 100-
150 km. It is the entire crust plus the uppermost part of the mantle.
-Asthenosphere (from the Greek asthenes, meaning ”weak”) is relatively
soft (flowable) layer that lies below a depth of 100-150 km.
The boundary between the lithosphere and asthenosphere occurs at
temperature of about 1280 °C, for at this temperature mantle rock becomes
soft enough to flow.
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How the inner core could be frozen while the outer core is molten

The temperature inside Earth should increase with depth. The

temperature rises from about 3500°C at the core-mantle boundary to
about 5000°C at its center.

Laboratory experiments on iron-nickel alloys showed that the

“freezing” was due to higher pressure rather than lower
temperatures at Earth’s center.

As the Earth melted, iron and nickel with sulfur “sank” (under the
force of gravity) to form the core. The lighter elements (Si, Al, O)
“floated” to the top, cooled and formed the outer crust; between the
core and crust is the mantle, >90% Fe, Mg, Si, and O (See Fig. 4).

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 ‫ﺟﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‪ /‬اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮة اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ‬

‫ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﻘﺸﺮة اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﯾﺔ ﻟﻸرض ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﺼﺨﺮي إﻟﻰ ﺣﻮاﻟﻲ اﺛﻨﺘﻲ ﻋﺸﺮة ﺻﻔﯿﺤﺔ ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺰﻟﻖ ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻘﺎرب أو اﻻﻧﻔﺼﺎل ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ أﺛﻨﺎء ﺗﺤﺮﻛﮭﺎ ﻓﻮق اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﻤﻮري اﻷﺿﻌﻒ واﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺮوﻧﺔ‪ .‬ﯾﺘﻢ إﻧﺸﺎء اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﺣﯿﺚ‬
‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﻓﺼﻠﮭﺎ وإﻋﺎدة ﺗﺪوﯾﺮھﺎ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺘﻘﺎرب ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺸﺎء واﻟﺘﺪﻣﯿﺮ‪ .‬ﺗﻨﺠﺮف اﻟﻘﺎرات اﻟﻤﺪﻣﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﺼﺨﺮي‬
‫ﺟﻨﺒًﺎ إﻟﻰ ﺟﻨﺐ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺮﻛﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻀﺎ أن اﻟﻘﺎرات ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺒﻌﻀﮭﺎ‬

‫ﺗﺼﻒ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ واﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮة ﺑﯿﻨﮭﺎ‪ .‬اﻓﺘﺮﺿﺖ اﻟﻨﻈﺮﯾﺔ أﯾ ً‬
‫اﻟﺒﻌﺾ واﻧﻔﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ واﻧﻔﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﻨﺬ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺮن )اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.(1‬‬

‫ﻀﺎ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‪ :‬اﻟﺒﺮاﻛﯿﻦ )اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻟﺒﺮﻛﺎﻧﻲ( ؛ اﻟﺰﻻزل‪ .‬وﺗﻮزﯾﻊ ﺳﻼﺳﻞ اﻟﺠﺒﺎل )ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬
‫ﺗﺸﺮح اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ أﯾ ً‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎء اﻟﺠﺒﺎل ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ ﺗﺼﺎدم اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ( ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﺠﻤﻌﺎت اﻟﺼﺨﺮﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬واﻟﮭﯿﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎع اﻟﺒﺤﺮ ‪ ،‬وﻛﻠﮭﺎ ﻧﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺤﺮﻛﺎت ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﺪود اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ‪ .‬ﺑﺪأت اﻷﻓﻜﺎر اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﻣﻊ ﻓﻜﺮة اﻻﻧﺠﺮاف اﻟﻘﺎري‪ .‬ﯾﺤﺪد ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻻﻧﺠﺮاﻓﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺎت واﺳﻌﺔ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق ﻟﻠﻘﺎرات ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻟﻔﺘﺮة طﻮﯾﻠﺔ )ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ‪ .(Alfred Wanger 1912‬أﻋﺎد ﻓﯿﺠﻨﺮ ﺗﺠﻤﯿﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎرات ﻟﯿﺸﻜﻞ ﻗﺎرة ﻋﻤﻼﻗﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻧﺠﯿﺎ )اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ .(1‬اﻋﺘﻘﺪ ﻓﯿﺠﻨﺮ أن اﻟﺼﺨﻮر واﻟﺤﻔﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺸﺎﺑﮭﺔ ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﮭﻞ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮھﺎ‬
‫إذا ﻛﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﻘﺎرات ﻣﺘﺮاﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﻌًﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮاﻗﻌﮭﺎ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻨﺎﺛﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎق واﺳﻊ‪.‬‬

‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﺪاﻓﻌﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬه اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎرة ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻓﺮﺿﯿﺔ اﻧﺘﺸﺎر ﻗﺎع اﻟﺒﺤﺮ‪ .‬إﻧﮫ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﻞ اﻟﺤﺮاري‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺒﺎءة اﻷرض اﻟﺬي ﯾﺪﻓﻊ اﻟﻘﺎرات وﯾﻔﺼﻠﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﺗﻜﻮﯾﻦ ﻗﺸﺮة ﻣﺤﯿﻄﯿﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻧﺘﺸﺎر ﻗﺎع اﻟﺒﺤﺮ‪.‬‬
 ‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :1‬ﺗﻔﻜﻚ ﺑﺎﻧﺠﯿﺎ واﻻﻧﺠﺮاف اﻟﻘﺎري‪After C. R. Scotese .‬‬

‫ﺗﻢ دﻋﻢ ھﺬه اﻟﻔﻜﺮة ﺑﻌﺪ اﻟﺤﺮب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ رﺳﻢ ﺧﺮاﺋﻂ ﻟﺤﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻨﺘﺼﻒ اﻷطﻠﺴﻲ واﻛﺘﺸﺎف اﻟﻮادي اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻖ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﺒﮫ‬
‫اﻟﺼﺪع‪ .‬ﺗﺤﺪث ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺰﻻزل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ اﻷطﻠﺴﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺮب ﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻮادي اﻟﻤﺘﺼﺪع )اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.(2‬‬

‫ﻧﻈﺮا ﻷن اﻟﺼﺪع اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﻲ ﯾﻮﻟﺪ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺰﻻزل ‪ ،‬ﻓﻘﺪ أﺷﺎرت ھﺬه اﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﺼﺪع ﻛﺎن ﺳﻤﺔ ﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺗﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿًﺎ‪ .‬ﺗﻢ اﻟﻌﺜﻮر ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ً‬
‫ﺗﻼل أﺧﺮى ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺘﺼﻒ اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ ﻣﻊ ﺻﺪوع وﻧﺸﺎط زﻟﺰاﻟﻲ ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻄﯿﻦ اﻟﮭﺎدئ واﻟﮭﻨﺪي )اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.(3‬‬
 ‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :2‬ﻗﺎع اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ اﻷطﻠﺴﻲ اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻲ‬

‫ﺗﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎت اﻟﺠﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﺪودھﺎ‪ .‬اﻷﻧﻮاع اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﺤﺪود اﻷﻟﻮاح )اﻧﻈﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ 3‬و ‪ (4‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺤﻮ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ﺣﺪود ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻋﺪة ‪ ،‬وﺗﺘﺤﺮك اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ وﯾﺘﻢ إﻧﺸﺎء ﻏﻼف ﺻﺨﺮي ﺟﺪﯾﺪ )ﺗﺰداد ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﯿﺤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺎرﺑﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﺠﻤﻊ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﻣﻌًﺎ وﯾﻌﺎد ﺗﺪوﯾﺮ إﺣﺪاھﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻮﺷﺎح )ﺗﻘﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﻠﻮﺣﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ﺣﺪود ﻓﻮاﻟﻖ اﻟﺘﺤﻮﯾﻞ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻨﺰﻟﻖ اﻷﻟﻮاح أﻓﻘﯿﺎ ً ﻓﻮق ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ )ﺗﻈﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ(‪.‬‬
 ‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :3‬ﯾﻮﺿﺢ ﺣﺪود اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ وﺗﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﺰﻻزل ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺮب ﻣﻨﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ واﻟﺒﺮاﻛﯿﻦ‬
‫ﻀﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.4‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ واﻟﺒﺮاﻛﯿﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ أﯾ ً‬
‫ﺗﺘﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺼﮭﺎرة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮﺷﺎح ﻓﻲ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ إﻋﺪادات ﺗﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ‪ :‬ﺣﺪود ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻋﺪة )ذوﺑﺎن ازاﻟﺔ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ( ‪ ،‬وﺣﺪود ﻣﺘﻘﺎرﺑﺔ‬
‫)ذوﺑﺎن اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ( ‪ ،‬وأﻋﻤﺪة اﻟﻮﺷﺎح )ذوﺑﺎن ﺗﺨﻔﯿﻒ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ(‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :4‬ﯾﻮﺿﺢ اﻟﺮﺳﻢ اﻟﺘﺨﻄﯿﻄﻲ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ واﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻤﻮاد اﻷرض ‪ ،‬واﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻟﺒﺮﻛﺎﻧﻲ ‪ ،‬وﻋﻼﻗﺘﮭﺎ ﺑﺤﺪود اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ‬
‫اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫ﻟﻠﺘﻠﺨﯿﺺ‪ :‬وﻓﻘًﺎ ﻟﻨﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﺼﺨﺮي إﻟﻰ ﺣﻮاﻟﻲ اﺛﻨﻲ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻟﻮ ًﺣﺎ ﺻﻠﺒًﺎ ﻣﺘﺤﺮ ًﻛﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أﻧﻮاع ﻣﻦ ﺣﺪود اﻟﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻨﺴﺒﯿﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ‪ :‬ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻋﺪ وﻣﺘﻘﺎرب وﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻔﺎﻟﻖ‪.‬‬

‫ﻻ ﺗﺘﻐﯿﺮ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻷرض ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ؛ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﯿﺤﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ إﻧﺸﺎؤھﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﺪود ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻋﺪة‪،‬‬
‫ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺴﺎوي ﻣﺮاﻛﺰ اﻻﻧﺘﺸﺎر ﻟﺤﻮاف وﺳﻂ اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﯿﺤﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺎرﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻻﻧﺪﺳﺎس‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﻔﺎھﯿﻢ ﻣﮭﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‪:‬‬

‫ﻀﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬إن ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ اﻟﺠﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ واﻟﻔﯿﺰﯾﺎﺋﯿﺔ واﻟﻜﯿﻤﯿﺎﺋﯿﺔ واﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﯿﻮم ﻗﺪ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ أﯾ ً‬

‫)) اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ھﻮ ﻣﻔﺘﺎح اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ((‬

‫‪ -‬اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻟﺪﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﻜﯿﺔ ﻟﻤﻮاد اﻷرض ﻓﻲ ظﻞ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ واﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻸرض )اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ .(4‬ھﺬه اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت ھﻲ ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺼﺨﻮر ا ﻟﺒﺮﻛﺎﻧﯿﺔ واﻟﺮﺳﻮﺑﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺘﺤﻮﻟﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪود اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن ﺗﻜﻮﯾﻦ ھﺬه اﻟﺼﺨﻮر ﻣﻦ اﻟﺼﮭﺎرة‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ ھﻲ اﻟﺬوﺑﺎن واﻟﺘﺒﻠﻮر واﻟﻀﻐﻂ ودرﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارة‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ھﻲ‪ :‬اﻟﺘﺠﻮﯾﺔ ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﺘﻔﻜﻚ واﻟﺘﺤﻠﻞ ‪ ،‬واﻟﻨﻘﻞ ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﺮﺳﯿﺐ ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﺪﻋﯿﻢ ‪ ،‬وﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﺮواﺳﺐ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﯿﻞ‬
‫أﺧﯿﺮا‪.‬‬
‫ً‬ ‫اﻟﺼﺨﻮر اﻟﺮﺳﻮﺑﯿﺔ‬

‫‪ -‬ﯾﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺠﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ وﯾﺴﺠﻞ ﺗﻄﻮر اﻷرض واﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻣﻨﺬ أن ﺗﺸﻜﻠﺖ اﻷرض ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎدة ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﺠﻮم ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺸﻤﺴﻲ ﺣﺘﻰ‬
‫ﯾﻮﻣﻨﺎ ھﺬا ﺿﻤﻦ ﻓﺘﺮات زﻣﻨﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻣﻘﯿﺎس اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺠﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ھﻮ اﻟﺘﻘﻮﯾﻢ ﻟﮭﺬا اﻟﺘﻄﻮر‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬ظﮭﺮ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﻌﻀﻮي وﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ 1859‬ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل أﺻﻞ اﻷﻧﻮاع ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ اﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎء اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ‪.‬‬

‫))ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺤﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺒﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ وأﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﺰﻟﺖ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻌﺪﯾﻼت ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﺎﺷﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ((‪.‬‬

‫اﻷﺣﺎﻓﯿﺮ ھﻲ اﻷﺳﺎس ﻟﺸﺮح ھﺬه اﻟﻨﻈﺮﯾﺔ وﺗﻮﻓﺮ أدﻟﺔ ﻟﺘﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺄرﯾﺦ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت واﻷدﻟﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﯿﺔ ﻋﻦ‬
‫طﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﺘﻜﯿﻒ‬
General Geology Lecture Three Dr. Harith E. Aljubuey

Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics theory:

The Earth's tough, hard outer shell of the lithosphere is divided into about a dozen
plates, which slide through. They converge or separate from each other as they move
over the weaker, more elastic asthenosphere. Where plates are created, they are
separated and recycled as they converge in a continuous process of creation and
destruction. Compact continents drift into the lithosphere together with moving
plates.

The theory of plate tectonics describes the movement of plates and the forces acting
between them. The theory also assumed that the continents were linked together
some of them separated and separated from each other more than a century ago (Fig.
1).

Plate tectonics also explains: volcanism (volcanic activity); earthquakes; and the
distribution of mountain ranges (eg, mountain building by plate collisions), rock
assemblages, and structures on the seafloor, all of which result from movements at
plate boundaries. The basic ideas of plate tectonics began with the idea of continental
drift.

Define the concept of drifts continental large-scale movements of continents across

the globe for a long time (by Alfred Wanger 1912). Wegener regrouped continents
to form a supercontinent, Pangea (Fig. 1). Wegener thought that similar rocks and
fossils were easier to explain. If the continents were connected together, rather than
at their present locations, they are widely scattered.

The driving force that produces such movement on the continent can be explained
by the seafloor spreading hypothesis. It is the result of convection in the earth's

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General Geology Lecture Three Dr. Harith E. Aljubuey

mantle that pushes the continents apart and separates them from each other, leading
to the formation of new oceanic crust through a process sea floor spread.

Fig. 1: The break-up of Pangea and continental drift. Scotese. R.C.A

This idea was supported after World War II by the mapping of the mid-Atlantic rim
and the discovery of a deep canyon resembling the rift. All earthquakes in the
Atlantic Ocean occur near this rift valley (Fig. 2).

Since the tectonic fault generates most earthquakes, these results indicated that the
fault was a tectonically active feature. Have been found other mid-ocean ridges
with faults and similar seismic activity are in the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Fig.
3).

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General Geology Lecture Three Dr. Harith E. Aljubuey

Fig. 2: The floor of the North Atlantic

Many geological features develop through plate interactions at their boundaries. The
three basic types of slab borders (Fig. 3 and 4) as follows:

1. Divergent boundaries, and the plates move away from each other and a new
lithosphere is created (the area of the plate increases).
2. Convergent boundaries, the plates clump together and one of them is
recycled into the mantle (the plate area decreases).
3. Boundaries of shunt faults, slabs slide horizontally over each other (the area
of the slab remains constant).

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General Geology Lecture Three Dr. Harith E. Aljubuey

Fig. 3: Shows plate boundaries and earthquake distribution near them.

Plate tectonics and volcanoes:

The relationships between plate tectonics and volcanoes are also shown in Fig. 4.

Magma forms from the mantle in three main plate tectonic settings: divergent
boundaries (decompression melting), convergent boundaries (melt flow), and mantle
plumes (melt decompression).

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General Geology Lecture Three Dr. Harith E. Aljubuey

Fig. 4: The schematic diagram illustrates the internal and external processes of earth
materials, volcanic activity, and their relationship to the three plate boundaries.

To summarize: According to the theory of plate tectonics, the lithosphere is divided

into about a twelve solid plates.

Three types of plate boundaries are determined by the relative motion between the
plates: divergent, convergent, and diaphragm shift.

The Earth's surface area does not change over geological time; Therefore, the new
plate area created at divergent boundaries, where the spreading centers of the mid-
periphery edges equals the plate area consumed at the convergent boundaries by the
subduction process.

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General Geology Lecture Three Dr. Harith E. Aljubuey

Important concepts in geology:

The principles of geological, physical, chemical and biological laws that operate
today also worked in the past.

(( Present is the key to the past ))

The dynamic differences of the Earth's materials under the internal and external
processes of the Earth (Fig. 4). These differences are between igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks, especially at the boundaries of tectonic plates, while the
formation of these rocks is magma.

 The internal processes are melting, crystallization, pressure and temperature.

 The external processes are: weathering by disintegration and decomposition,
transport, sedimentation, consolidation, and compaction of sediments to
finally form sedimentary rocks.

It discusses geological time and records the development of the earth and life since
the Earth was formed from interstellar material in the solar system to the present day
within time periods, while the geological time scale is the calendar for this
development.

Organic evolution and the history of life appeared in 1859 through the Origin of
Species by Natural Selection.

((All present organisms are related to each other and they descended with
modifications from organisms that lived in the past)).

Fossils are the basis for explaining this theory and provide evidence for the history
of life on Earth as well as stratigraphic dating and environmental evidence by
adaptation.

6
General Geology Lecture Four Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

Minerals:

They are the building blocks of rocks. A mineral can consist of one or more chemical elements,
usually a compound. A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring, generally inorganic, solid
crystalline substance with a defined chemical composition. Minerals are homogeneous: they
cannot be mechanically broken down into smaller components. Most of Earth's minerals are
composed of the two elements silicon and oxygen. Pressure, temperature, available elements, and
fluids control which minerals will form (or decompose).

Minerals can form by any of the following processes:

1. Precipitation from a fluid like H2O or CO2. This can take place within the Earth by
hydrothermal processes, diagenesis, and metamorphism, and at or near the Earth's surface
as a result of evaporation, weathering, or biological activity.
2. Sublimation from a vapor. This process is somewhat rarer, but can take place at a
volcanic vent, or deep in space where the pressure is near vacuum.
3. Crystallization from a liquid. This takes place during crystallization of molten rock
(magma) either below or at the Earth's surface.
4. Solid - Solid reactions. This process involves minerals reacting with other minerals in the
solid state to produce one or more new minerals. Such processes take place during
metamorphism and diagenesis due to changing temperature and pressure conditions.
Mineral chemistry:

1. All matter, including mineral matter, is made of elements.

2. 8 to 10 elements account for most of Earth’s mass but the elements are distributed
unevenly.
3. The Periodic Chart of the Elements orders elements by their atomic number and groups
elements with similar properties.
4. Elements with similar properties may substitute for each other in minerals and many
minerals have variable compositions.
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General Geology Lecture Four Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

5. Ionic, covalent, or metallic bonding are most common in minerals.

6. The kind of bonding affects mineral properties.
7. We describe mineral compositions by giving weight %s of the elements or oxides present.
8. Weight % values can be normalized to give chemical formulas.
9. Although 1000s of minerals are known, only a small number are common.

Composition of the Crust:

The Earth's crust is made up of about 95% igneous and metamorphic rocks, 4% shale, 0.75%
sandstone, and 0.25% limestone. The continental crust has an average composition that
approximates granodiorite (a medium to siliceous igneous rock), whereas the oceanic crust has
an average composition that is basaltic (a low silica igneous rock).

Table 1: the average composition of the continental crust is as follows:

Element Wt % Atomic % Volume %
O 46.60 62.55 ~ 94
Si 27.72 21.22 ~6
Al 8.13 6.47
Fe 5.00 1.92
Ca 3.63 1.94
Na 2.83 2.34
K 2.59 1.42
Mg 2.09 1.84
Total 98.59 100.00 100

Note that 8 elements make up over 98% of the Earth's crust and that Oxygen is the most abundant
element. This becomes even more evident if the elements are determined on an atomic basis,
where we can see that about 63 out of every 100 atoms in the crust are Oxygen. On a volume
basis, Oxygen makes up about 94% of the crust because Oxygen is a large anion, and the other
elements occur as small cations coordinated by the Oxygen anions, as we discussed in the
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General Geology Lecture Four Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

previous lecture. Because of the average composition of the crust, the most common minerals
found in the crust are silicates and oxides. Of the silicates, the aluminosilicates, like the feldspars
and clay minerals are the most common. Other minerals, containing the other elements in the
periodic table are found in the crust. But, in order for these minerals to occur, special geologic
conditions are necessary to concentrate these less abundant elements so that they occur in high
enough concentrations to form a separate mineral. Elements that occur in concentrations less than
about 0.1% (usually measured in parts per million or parts per billion) are called dispersed
elements or trace elements.
Methods of Chemical Analysis:

While the common minerals are made up mostly of the abundant elements in the Crust, and we
can express the chemical composition of such minerals by a simple (and sometimes not so simple)
chemical formula, all minerals exhibit some chemical variation. Various methods have been used
to perform chemical analyses of rocks and minerals.
 Gravimetric Analyses
 Volumetric Analyses
 Colorometric Analyses

Generally, all elements cannot be determined by the same wet chemical methods and different
methods are more sensitive for different elements.

1. Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS).

2. X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry.
3. Electron Microprobe (EMP) Analysis.
4. X-ray Diffraction (XRD).

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General Geology Lecture Four Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

Compositional Variation in Minerals:

In our definition of a mineral, we said that a mineral has a definite, but not necessarily fixed
chemical composition. Chemical compositional variation in minerals is referred to solid solution.
Solid solution occurs as the result of ions substituting for one another in a crystal structure. The
factors that control the amount of solid solution that can take place in any given crystal structure
are:
 The size of the ions and the size of the crystallographic sites into which they substitute.
 The charges on the ions that are substituting for one another.
 The temperature and pressure at which the substitution takes place.

Three different types of solid solution are recognized - substitutional, interstitial, and omission.
Substitutional Solid Solution:
 Simple substitution: When ions of equal charge and nearly equal size substitute for one
another, the solid solution is said to be simple.
a) Fe+2 <=> Mg+2 Example: Olivines: Mg2SiO4 - Fe2SiO4, Pyroxenes: MgSiO3 -
FeSiO3.
b) Na+1 <=> K+1 Example: Alkali Feldspars: NaAlSi3O8 - KAlSi3O8.
 Coupled Substitution: Coupled substitution occurs if an ion of different charge is
substituted. This results in having to make another substitution in order to maintain charge
balance.
a) Na+1Si+4 <=> Ca+2Al+3 Example: Plagioclase: NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8.
b) Ca+2Mg+2 <=> Na+1Al+3 Example: Diopside: CaMgSi2O6 - Jadeite: NaAlSi2O6.
 Interstitial Solid Solution: In some crystal structures there are sites that are not normally
occupied by ions. These are considered voids.
 Omission solid solution: Occurs when an ion of higher charge substitutes for an ion of
lower charge.

4
General Geology Lecture Four Dr. Harith E. Aljubury

Bowen reaction series:

A concept proposed by Bowen. L N, showing the relationship between magma cooling and
mineral crystallization of magma during igneous rock formation. Bowen's experiments showed
that the crystallization sequence in cooled magma showed that some minerals are stable at higher
melting temperatures and crystallize earlier than those that are stable at lower temperatures. At
higher temperatures, the sequence is divided into two branches, the continuous and discontinuous
branch. The continuous branch contains only feldspar minerals with plagioclase. The
discontinuous branch describes the formation of ferromagnetic minerals, such as: olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. (Fig. 1)

Fig, 1: Bowen reaction series.