Unit I: Introduction to Psychology

Methods in psychology

Observation

In naturalistic observation, the investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior
and does not make a change in the situation. Here the researcher is passive and simply records
what occurs. For example, observing social behavior of 3 year olds in a park setting. Major use
of this method is used in animal research.

Advantages of observation method:

1) We get a sample of what people do in the ‘natural’ habitat.
2) Naturalistic observation is often effective for studying animal behavior, children, mobs
and audiences.

Disadvantages of observation method:

1) In this method, the observer has to wait for the behavior under study to enter on its own
accord. This consumes too much time. Sometimes behavior might not occur at all, in this
case waiting is a waste.
2) If the subjects know they are being watched, their reactions will alter, thereby producing
behavior which is not truly representative.
3) In this method, the observer records only the overt behavior and not the feelings and
experiences which are purely internal. Ignoring these feelings which underlie overt
behavior, will cause the data to be inadequate.
4) In naturalistic setting, it is impossible to control all the variables which determine the
behavior under study. Hence we cannot completely correlate a specific behavior with a
particular variable.
5) However much the observer tries to be objective in his observation and recording,
personal bias will creep in. Therefore, the observer will be observing what he wants and
not what is actually occurring.

Survey research

This research method involves sampling a group of people, and asking them questions about
aspects of their behavior, thoughts or attitudes, assessing them and generalizing the findings to a
larger population. The best way to find out what people think, feel and do, is by asking them
directly, or making them complete questionnaires designed to yield information on specific
aspects of behavior or attitude.
For example 1: a sample of just a few thousand voters is sufficient to predict who will win a
presidential election – if the representative population is chosen with care.
Example 2: sex survey by Kinsley Institute tracks changing patterns of sexual behavior and
attitudes through the 1940s.

Advantages of survey method:

1) Large amounts of information can be gathered with relative ease, and shifts over time can
be noted.
2) It is the most straightforward approach to understand what people do.
3) If conducted carefully, surveys can provide highly accurate predictions to outcomes of
elections and other events.

Disadvantages of survey method:

1) People may give inaccurate information due to memory lapses or because they don’t
want the researcher to know what they really believe about a particular issue.
2) People sometimes offer responses they think that the researchers want to hear or
responses they assume the researcher does not want to hear.
3) If the sample of people in the survey is not representative of the broader population of
interest, the results of the survey will have little meaning.

Case study or Clinical method

The clinical method is ordinarily used only when people came to psychologists with personal
problems. For example, when a child throws temper tantrums, refuses to eat, cries all night, and
generally makes life miserable for the parent.
Definition: Case study is an in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of
people.
It often includes psychological testing; a procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions
is used to gain insight into the personality of the individual or group being tested.
The psychologist usually begins by getting a detailed account of the person’s history, including
his family relations. From the subject’s personal history and results from psychological testing,
the psychologist diagnoses the problem, and remedies the difficulty.
When case studies are used as a research technique, the goal is to use the insights gained from
the study of a few individuals to improve our understanding of people in general. Sigmund Freud
built all his theories on personality through case studies of individual patients.

Advantages of Case study method:

1) The method suggests fruitful ideas which can be investigated more rigorously by
experiment and systematic observation method.
 2) The insights we gain in the study of few individuals can be used to gain insights in
understanding people in general.

Disadvantages of Case study method:

1) Generalizations must be cautiously drawn as one case may not be representative of the
general population.
2) There is a possibility that researchers may develop emotional attachment to people with
whom they work closely for months/ years, This can reduce their objectivity.

Correlation Method

Definition: It is a research method that examines the relationship between two sets of variables to
determine whether they are associated or correlated.
The investigator observes two or more variables (behavior or event that varies in order to
determine whether the changes in one are accompanied by changes in the other. For example to
find out if there is a relationship between attending religious services and helpfulness to people
in emergency situations.
In this research, the relationship between the two sets of variables is examined to determine
whether they are associated or correlated. The strength and direction of the relationship is
represented by a score known as co-efficient of correlation.

Correlation of co-efficient ranges from +1.0 to -1.0, the greater their departure from 0.00, the
stronger is the relationship between the two variables.
1) Positive correlation: 0.00 to +1.00: This indicates that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other variable will also increase. For example, HIgher studying
is related to higher grades; less studying is related to lower grades.
2) Negative correlation: 0.00 to -1.00: This indicates that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other decreases. For example, more studying is related to less
partying, whereas less studying is related to more partying.
3) No correlation: 0.00: It is possible that little or no relationship exists between two
variables. For example, no relationship exists between number of hours studying and
height. Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a correlation close to 0.00.

Important point
When we find that two variables are correlated, it is tempting to presume that one variable causes
the other. But correlations do not imply causations.
For example: We may find children watching TV, may show aggressive behavior, while children
not watching too much TV, do not show aggression. One cannot say that aggression is caused by
TV viewing. It could be that children who have unusually high levels of energy seek out
programs having aggressive content and are more aggressive. So the child’s energy level may be
the true cause of the higher incidence of aggression.
Advantages of the correlation method:
1) It is highly efficient and can yield a large amount of data in a short time.
2) It can be extended to include many different variables at once.

Disadvantages of the correlation method:

1. This method is unable to demonstrate cause and effect relationships.
2. The fact that two variables rise or fall together, may simply reflect the fact that both are
caused by a third variable.
Eg: weight, salaries weight and earning increase with age and experience.

The Experimental Method

Definitions: The only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationship is by the
experimental method.

Baron’ Definition: It is a method of research in which scientists systematically alter one or more
variables in order to determine whether such changes affect some aspect of behavior.

Feldman: In a formal experiment, the relationship between two (or more) variables is
investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the
effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.

Having formulated a testable hypothesis, the experimenter,

1) Changes or varies the events which are hypothesized to have an effect.
2) Keeps other conditions constant
3) Looks for an effect of the change or variation on the system under observation.
Since psychology is the science of behavior, the psychologist looks for an effect of the
experimental change on behavior.

A typical experiment begins with a problem, followed by a hypothesis. To test this hypothesis,
the relationship between the variables is examined. To establish a clear cut relationship between
a stimulus and response, all other possible influences should be eliminated. Measures or Controls
are taken to hold all such other variables (other than the ones under study) constant.

What is a problem?
A problem is the phenomenon or the relationship, which the experimenter wishes to study
between 2 or more variables.
For example: Does competition improve performance?
What is a hypothesis?
A tentative statement about the relationship between the variables is the hypotheses. Hypothesis
is a suggested answer to the problem under investigation. There are three types of hypothesis.
1) Positive hypothesis: Here relationship between two variables is expressed in a positive
statement. For example: competition improves performance.
2) Negative hypothesis: Here relationship between two variables is expressed in a negative
statement. For example: competition does not improve performance.
3) Null hypothesis: Here no relationship between the variables is stated. For example: there
is no relationship between competition and performance.

What is Experimental manipulation?

The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation is called experimental
manipulation. Experimental manipulations are used to detect relationship between variables.

What is a variable?
As the name implies, a variable is an event or condition which can have different values. It is an
event or condition which can be measured and which varies quantitatively. Variables can be
either dependent or independent.

Independent variable: An independent variable is a condition selected/set by an experimenter to

see whether it will have an effect on behavior. It might be a stimulus presented, a drug
administered, method of teaching/training.

Dependent variable: The dependent variable is so called because its value depends on the
dependent variable. It is the behavior of the person or animal in the experiment. It may be the
response of a person to a stimulus, a change in behavior after administration of a new drug, a
score on a test, performance of a student in response to competition.

Relevant variables: These are those variables that can affect the dependent variable and hence
needs to be controlled. For example: in an experiment on effect of different types of studying on
memory, age and vocabulary are the relevant variables which have to be controlled.

Irrelevant variables: These are variables which do not affect the dependent variables. For
example: Memory is not affected by height or weight of the subjects.

Extraneous variables: These are variables which do act on the dependent variable, however
much we control other variables. For example: Mood of the subject, Noise/Distraction

What are controls?

In an experiment it is important that only the specified independent variable be allowed to
change. Factors other than the independent variable which might affect the dependent variable
must be held constant. It would do no good to study the effects of varying an independent
variable if, unknown to the experimenter other factors also changed. For example: In the effect
of competition on performance, other factors like age and intelligence levels might also influence
performance. For example: if different speakers are used in two conditions of testing
effectiveness of a speaker, one is a fast talker but with a pleasant civilized voice and the other is
a slow talker but has a thick unpleasant voice --- then is it the speed of the speech or the
differences in pleasantness of voice which will cause an effect on the dependent variable
(audience reaction)? These are the relevant variables or extraneous variables.
Two main strategies or experimental designs are used to control these extraneous factors:

Control groups: In this design there are two groups, the control group and the experimental
group. These two groups should be equivalent in every way except for the independent variable.
The two groups are matched in all aspects, before the independent variable is introduced in the
experimental group.

For example: The effect of praise on performance.

 Tests are given to both groups.
 In the control group no form of appraisal or reward is given to the subjects after each test.
 In the experimental group, praise and rewards are given to the subjects after each test.
 Then test scores are compared. If the subjects’ performance in the experimental group is
better (or worse) than subjects’ performance in the control group, then we can conclude
that praise is related to learning ability. If no difference in performance is observed, then
we can conclude praise does not influence performance.

Within subjects Design: If the matched groups are not available, the experiment is conducted on
one group under two conditions, controlled condition and experimental condition. This is called
Before-and-After design.
In this method, a baseline (normal level) of behavior is established before the independent
variable is introduced.
The behavior after the addition of the independent variable can then be compared with the
baseline behavior.

For example: Effect of praise on performance

 Instead of using two groups, we use the same group and give tests to the subjects without
praise or reward on their performance in the ‘before’ condition or the controlled
condition.
 Then in the ‘after’ condition or experimental condition, we give praise to the subjects
after their performance on the tests.
  Results are compared for the subject in both these conditions, before and after the
introduction of the independent variable (praise).

Advantages of the experimental method:

1) It is an objective and scientific method.
2) The results can be verified by repeating the experiment under similar conditions at any
time later and can either be accepted or rejected. In other words replication is possible.
3) Cause and effect is studied. If systematic variations in one factor produces changes in the
other (and if the extraneous factors are controlled), the cause and effect can be
established.

Disadvantages of experimental method:

1) It cannot be used if the experiment is dangerous to the subject.
2) The conclusions derived from an experiment may be limited to the artificial experimental
situation; they may not apply to natural situations.
3) Since the experimental design is an artificial situation, the responses elicited may also be
artificial as the subjects are conscious of being part of the experiment.
4) It is difficult to find matched groups for the study.