Psychology

Class 11th Chapter 2 – Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Contents:-

 Introduction
 Goals of Psychological Enquiry
 Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
 Alternative Paradigms of Research
 Nature of Psychological Data
 Some Important Methods in Psychology
 Observational Method
 Experimental Method
 Co-relational Research
 Survey Research
 Psychological Testing
 Case Study
 Analysis of Data
 Quantitative Method
 Qualitative Method
 Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
 Ethical Issues

BY GARIMA CHIB
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. While you might understand what
psychology is, many people are not quite so sure about what psychology does

The five key goals of psychology are:

1. DESCRIPTION
It involves accurately recording or sharing a particular behavior. It helps the researcher to be
systematic and consistent. It helps in distinguishing one behavior from another and helping us to
understand that behavior properly.

2. PREDICTION
It involves forecast of a particular behavior in the future provided certain conditions remaining
certain conditions remaining the same. If one is able to describe and understand the behavior,
one can know the relationship of a particular behavior with the other types of behavior.
Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the no. of people observed.

3. EXPLANATION
It involves the understanding of the causal factors or determinants of behavior. Thus,
psychologists try understanding which circumstances under which behavior would occur or not
occur.

4. CONTROL

It refers to making a particular behavior happen, reducing it or enhancing it. Method of

eliminating all unwanted factors that may affect what one is attempting to study. This is done by
making changes in the antecedent. Thus behavior becomes dependent on the treatment.

5. APPLICATION

This is the final goal of psychological enquiry which aims to bring positive changes in the lives
of the people. Research is conducted to enhance the lives of the people and it also leads to the
development of new theories.

STEPS IN CARRYING OUT A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective,

systematic and testable manner. The purpose is to focus on how to study any phenomenon in the
most scientific way. The steps are:

BY GARIMA CHIB
1. CONCEPTUALISING THE PROBLEM:-

It refers to selecting a theme or topic of study which is narrowed down to a specific domain. The
problem could relate to an individual, others, group, organization or influence of group on the
individual. After identifying the problem the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative
answer to the problem. This is called hypothesis.

2. COLLECTING DATA:-

It involves developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It involves

understanding the participants, methods of data collection, tools to be used and procedure for
data collection.

3. DRAWING CONCLUSION:-

It is done by using statistical data to understand the information collected and putting it in order.
Thus it helps us to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions.

4. REVISING RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS:-

In case of the hypothesis first formed is not verified, a new one is formed leading to new research.

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA

Data relates to the individual’s covert and overt behavior; the subjective experiences and mental
processes. They provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas and notions. Data is not an
independent entity devoid of physical and social context. The method of data collection used and
the characteristics of respondents also influence the nature and quality of data. Inferences must
be made from data:

1. Demographic Information: This information generally includes personal information like

name, age, gender, birth order, occupation, and family income, etc.
2. Physical Information: This category includes information about ecological conditions in the
neighbourhood, in the school, mode of transportation, etc.
3. Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as
intelligence, personality, interest, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological
disorders,
4. Physiological Data: In some studies physical, physiological and psychological data are
collected about height, weight, heart rate.

BY GARIMA CHIB
ALTERNATIVE PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH:

Interpretive techniques: give emphasis on the importance of human beings giving meaning to
events and actions, and interpret them as they occur in a particular context. Thus, it lays
importance on understanding over explanation and prediction, as human behavior is complex.
The focus is on subjective interpretation of reality. The goal is to explore the different aspects of
human experiences and behavior without attempting to disturb its natural flow.

OBSERVATIONAL METHOD:

Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of

describing behaviour. A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many
respects. These are:
a) SELECTION:
Psychologists select a particular behaviour for observation.
b) RECORDING:
While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as
marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing
each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc.
c) ANALYSIS OF DATA:
After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with
a view to derive some meaning out of it.

For example: Classroom Observation, Criminal Interrogation, group sensitivity etc.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

NATURALISTIC VS CONTROLLED OBSERVATION:

 NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: When observations are done in a natural or real-life

settings (for example, if it was a school in which observation was made), it is called
naturalistic observation. The observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the
situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals,
homes, schools, day care centers, etc.
 CONTROLLED OBSERVATION: Psychologists need to control certain factors that
determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study. This type of observation,
called Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory
experiments.

PARTICIPANT VS NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION: In participant observation, the observer becomes a

part of the school or the group of people being observed. The observer takes some time to
establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group
members.

BY GARIMA CHIB
  NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION An individual may decide to observe the person
or event from a distance. The person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being
observed for example: one may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering
or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-
participant observation

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1. It enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation.
2. In detailed observation, the observer identifies verbal as well as non-verbal language also.

DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1. It is time consuming.
2. It is labour intensive.
3. It is susceptible to observer’s bias.

CORELATIONAL RESEARCH
Co- relational method is a research method in which researchers attempt to determine whether
and to what extent different variables are related to each other. The method is used to determine
the relationship between two variables for predictive purposes. The strength and direction
between the two variables is represented by a number known as correlation of coefficient. It
ranges between -1 to +1.
It is of three types:

1. Positive Co-relation: Increase/Decrease in the value of one variable will lead to

increase/decrease in the value of other variable respectively. They will be in the same direction
either increasing or decreasing. For example: More studies will lead to more marks.

X Y X Y

BY GARIMA CHIB
2. Negative Co-relation: Increase/decrease in the value of one variable will lead to
decrease/increase in the value of other variable respectively. They will be in opposite directions.
For example: More the television time less the studying.

X Y X Y

3. Zero Co-relation: In this type of co-relation there is no relationship that exists between the
two variables.

*Co-relation means relationship, so the purpose of a co-relational study is to determine if a

relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.

ADVANTAGES OF CORELATIONAL METHOD

It can assess the strength of a relationship. It is popular with common population as well because
it is relatively easy to explain and understand.

DISADVANTAGES OF CORELATIONAL METHOD

It cannot make any assumptions of cause and effect.

CASE STUDY METHOD

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Case
studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known ones are carried out were by
Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in
an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. It uses various methods
such as interview, tests and observation.
Case studies provide rich Qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. Case study
gives emphasis on individual case. It gives us ample information and therefore multiple
information sources are important. Various psychological aspects can be studied through a case
study. Case studies provide a narrative or detailed description of the events that take place in
person’s life. The disadvantages of the case study method are validity which can only be over
come through careful planning for data collection.

BY GARIMA CHIB
 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DATA

S.NO QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

1 Objective/ Text-Based to gain an understanding Numerical data to quantify and generalize

Purpose of underlined reasons and results from a sample to the population of
motivations. interest.
2 Data Unstructured or Semi-Structured. Structured
Collection

3. Data Non- statistical Statistical

Analysis
4 Sample Small Sample Size Large Sample Size

5 Outcome Less generalized, exploratory and/or More generalized to recommend a final

investigative. They can’t be course of action which is generalized.
conclusive and used to generalize.
6 Example Unstructured interview, survey, Psychological test, Questionnaire, Co-
observation, case-study relational research, Experimental Method.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

Psychological Testing is also called as Psychological assessment. It is the foundation of

psychologists for a better understanding of a person and their behviour.
a) They test Intelligence, aptitude, personality, interest, values, educational achievement etc.
b) These tests are used for various purposes such as selection, placement, training, guidance,
diagnosis, etc.
c) Psychological testing is not a single test or even a single type of test. It encompasses a whole
body of dozens of research backed tests and procedures.
d) These tests contain a number of questions known as items with their probable responses which
are related to a particular human characteristic. It is important here that the characteristic for
which the test has been developed is defined clearly.

A Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an individual’s mental and

behavioral characteristics. An item is designed to ask specific questions. A test must be clear and
specific in terms of administration, scoring, conditions.

* Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on
the same group of people, both of them would come up with more or less the same values for
each person in the group.

BY GARIMA CHIB
*Standardization- The test must have uniform rule for instruction and given out in a similar
manner to all the subjects.

To meet the criteria of Standardization a test should have the following three things:
A) Reliability: Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of the scores obtained by the
individual on the same test at two different occasions. There are two types of reliability:
 Split-Half: The test is split into two halves and then their scores are compared. It can be
split in various ways. The first half and the second half or in the alternate halves like even
and odd items. It is done for the internal consistency of the test.
 Test-Retest: This indicates the stability of the scores overtime. This would include
participants in the same test at two different times.
B) Validity: A test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure what it claims to measure.
For example: a test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not something else such as
memory. There can be two types of validity Internal and External Validity
C) Norms: A test becomes standardized test when norms are developed for the test. Norms are
the normal average performance of the group which helps the researcher in comparing
performances of the other group of the same background and age group.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

The Psychological tests are divided on the basis of their language, mode of administration and
difficulty level.

1. On the basis of Language:

On the basis of language a psychological test can be divided into three categories that are:
a) VERBAL TEST: Verbal tests are administered in the oral or written format. They are given to
literate people/group. Literacy is required. They are culture based.
b) NON-VERBAL TEST: These tests consist of illustrations or pictures. They are not culture
biased. It can be administered on illiterate people also. For example: RSPM
c) PERFORMANCE TEST: These tests require manipulation of the objects from respective
places in a particular order. They are culture free. For example: Koh’s Block design

2. On the basis of administration

On the basis administration a test can be divided into two categories:
a) INDIVIDUAL TEST: These tests are administered to a single individual at a time. They can be
verbal, written or performance based and provides an opportunity to know the person. They are
mostly administered face to face which gives the researcher to form a rapport with the subject.

b) GROUP TESTS: These tests are generally administered in groups and are usually written.
There is no opportunity for interaction. They are easy to administer and less time consuming.

3.On the basis difficulty level

a) SPEED TESTS: A time limit during which the test must be conducted is called as a speed test.
Thus evaluation is based on the time taken by the subject. The degree of difficulty for the item is
the same. For example: DBDA

BY GARIMA CHIB
b) POWER TESTS: In this type of tests, the underlying ability of the individual by allowing them
sufficient time. They don’t have a time limit and the level of difficulty of the item increases as
the test progresses. For example: Raven’s SPM

LIMITATIONS OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

The limitations of a psychological research are:

1. LACK OF TRUE ZERO POINT: Psychological measurements do not have a true zero thus
the value reached can only be relative but not absolute. For ex: No one can ever have zero
Intelligence.
2. RELATIVE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS: Tools are decided based on a
particular context and thus can be modified and adapted keeping in mind the point of research. Eg.
Choosing an appropriate test for urban and rural classes.
3. SUBJECTIVE INTERPRETATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA: The data collected
from qualitative analysis/ studies is largely subjective. The interpretation may vary from one
individual to another. Thus, more than one investigator must collect this data.

ETHICS IN A PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Some ethics are to be followed while conducting the studies. These principles are : respect for
person’s primary choice to participate in the study, protecting the participants in the study from
any harm and sharing the benefits of research with all participants.
The basic ethics are as follows:
1. Voluntary Participation:
The person on whom the study is being conducted should have a choice whether they want to
participate or not. They should have a freedom to withdraw from the research if they are
unconformable.
2. Informed Consent:
Whenever possible, investigators should obtain the consent of the participant. They should
understand what will happen to them during the study. This should be done before the collection
of data so that they have the independence to decide whether they want to participate or not.
3. Debriefing:
Once, the study is over the participants are provided with necessary information to complete
their understanding. They must have a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and
why and their part in the study should be explained. The researcher should try to remove any
kind of anxieties.
4. Sharing the Results:
It is obligatory for the researcher to tell the participants the results of the study, once all the
analysis and interpretation is done. It will fulfill any expectation that the participant carries and
they may tell you about their opinions about the study which may help you to develop an insight.
5. Confidentiality:

BY GARIMA CHIB
The Participants in a study have a right to privacy. The data gained from them must be kept
confidential. No names should be used or disclosed that are used in the study. The identification
of the participant should be destroyed as soon as the study is over.

BY GARIMA CHIB