Introduction

Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth or water or other materials such as coal,
ore, etc; where conditions do not permit the mass to assume its natural slope. The retaining
material is usually termed as backfill. The main function of retaining walls is to stabilize
hillsides and control erosion. When roadway construction is necessary over rugged terrain
with steep slopes, retaining walls can help to reduce the grades of roads and the land
alongside the road. Some road projects lack available land beside the travel way, requiring
construction right along the toe of a slope. In these cases extensive grading may not be
possible and retaining walls become necessary to allow for safe construction and
acceptable slope conditions for adjacent land uses. Where soils are unstable, slopes are
quite steep, or heavy runoff is present, retaining walls help to stem erosion. Excessive
runoff can undermine roadways and structures, and controlling sediment runoff is a major
environmental and water quality consideration in road and bridge projects. In these
situations, building retaining walls, rather than grading excessively, reduces vegetation
removal and reduces erosion caused by runoff. In turn, the vegetation serves to stabilize the
soil and filter out sediments and pollutants before they enter the water source, thus
improving water quality.

Design of Retaining Structures

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

Gravity walls

Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

Flexible walls

Special type of retaining walls

On the basis of attaining stability, the retaining structures are classified into following:

Gravity walls:

Gravity walls are stabilized by their mass. They are constructed of dense, heavy materials
such as concrete and stone masonry and are usually reinforced. Some gravity walls do use
mortar, relying solely on their weight to stay in place, as in the case of dry stone walls.
They are economical for only small heights.
Fig 6.1 Gravity wall Fig 6.2 Dry Stone Gravity Wall

2. Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

These walls generally are trapezoidal in section. This type of wall is constructed in concrete
and derives its stability from its weight. A small amount of reinforcement is provided for
reducing the mass of the concrete. This can be classified into two:

 Cantilever retaining wall

 Counter fort retaining wall

Cantilever retaining wall

This is a reinforced concrete wall which utilises cantilever action to retain the backfill. This type is suitable for
retaining backfill to moderate heights(4m-7m). In cross section most cantilevered walls look like “L”s or
inverted “T”s. To ensure stability, they are built on solid foundations with the base tied to the vertical portion of
the wall with reinforcement rods. The base is then backfilled to counteract forward pressure on the vertical
portion of the wall. The cantilevered base is reinforced and is designed to prevent uplifting at the heel of the
base, making the wall strong and stable. Local building codes, frost penetration levels and soil qualities
determine the foundation and structural requirements of taller cantilevered walls. Reinforced concrete
cantilevered walls sometimes have a batter. They can be faced with stone, brick, or simulated veneers. Their
front faces can also be surfaced with a variety of textures. Reinforced Concrete Cantilevered Walls are built
using forms. When the use of forms is not desired, Reinforced Concrete Block Cantilevered Walls are another
option. Where foundation soils are poor, Earth Tieback Retaining Walls are another choice. These walls are
counterbalanced not only by a large base but also by a series of horizontal bars or strips extending out
perpendicularly from the vertical surface into the slope. The bars or strips, sometimes called “deadmen” are
made of wood, metal, or synthetic materials such as geotextiles. Once an earth tieback retaining wall is
backfilled, the weight and friction of the fill against the horizontal members anchors the structure.

Fig. Cantilever retaining wall Fig. Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

 Counterfort retaining wall

When the height of the cantilever retaining wall is more than about 7m, it is economical to
provide vertical bracing system known as counter forts. In this case, both base slab and face
of wall span horizontally between the counter forts.

Fig. Counter fort retaining wall

3. Flexible walls: there are two classes of flexible walls.

A. Sheet pile walls and

B. Diaphragm wall

A. Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet piles are generally made of steel or timber. The use of timber piles is generally limited to temporary
structures in which the depth of driving does not exceed 3m. For permanent structures and for depth of driving
greater than 3m, steel piles are most suitable. Moreover, steel piles are relatively water tight and can be
extracted if required and reused. However, the cost of sheet steel piles is generally more than that of timber
piles. Reinforced cement concrete piles are generally used when these are to be jetted into fine sand or driven
in very soft soils, such as peat. For tougher soils, the concrete piles generally break off. Based on its structural
form and loading system, sheet pile walls can be classified into 2 types: (i) Cantilever Sheet Piles and (ii)
Anchored Sheet Piles.

1. Cantilever sheet pile walls:

Fig. 6.6.Cantilever sheet pile wall

Cantilever sheet piles are further divide into two types:

  Free cantilever sheet pile

It is a sheet pile subjected to a concentrated horizontal load at its top. There is no back fill
above the dredge level. The free cantilever sheet pile derives its stability entirely from the
lateral passive resistance of the soil below the dredge level into which it is driven.
 Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall with Backfill

A cantilever sheet pile retains backfill at a higher level on one side. The stability is entirely
from the lateral passive resistance of the soil into which the sheet pile is driven, like that of
a free cantilever sheet pile.
2. Anchored sheet pile walls

Anchored sheet pile walls are held above the driven depth by anchors provided at a suitable level. The
anchors provided for the stability of the sheet pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance of the soil into
which the sheet piles are driven. The anchored sheet piles are also of two types.

Fig. 6.7. Anchored sheet pile wall

 Free earth support piles.

An anchored pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of embedment is small and the pile rotates
at its bottom tip. Thus there is a point of contra flexure in the pile.

 Fixed earth support piles.

An anchored sheet pile has fixed earth support when the depth of embedment is large. The bottom tip of the
pile is fixed against rotations. There is a change in the curvature of the pile, and hence, an inflection point
occurs.

B. Diaphragm Walls

Diaphragm walls are commonly used in congested areas for retention systems and permanent foundation
walls. They can be installed in close proximity to existing structures, with minimal loss of support to existing
foundations. In addition, construction dewatering is not required, so there is no associated subsidence.
Diaphragm walls have also been used as deep groundwater barriers through and under dams.

Diaphragm walls are constructed by the slurry trench technique which was developed in
Europe, and has been used in the United States since the l940's. The technique involves
excavating a narrow trench that is kept full of an engineered fluid or slurry. The slurry
exerts hydraulic pressure against the trench walls and acts as shoring to prevent collapse.
Slurry trench excavations can be performed in all types of soil, even below the ground
water table. Cast in place; diaphragm walls are usually excavated under bentonite slurry.
The construction sequence usually begins with the excavation of discontinuous primary
panels. Stop-end pipes are placed vertically in each end of the primary panels, to form
joints for adjacent secondary panels. Panels are usually 8 to 20 feet long, with widths
varying from 2 to 5 feet. Once the excavation of a panel is complete, a steel reinforcement
cage is placed in the centre of the panel. Concrete is then poured in one continuous
operation, through one or several tremie pipes that extend to the bottom of the trench. The
tremie pipes are extracted as the concrete rises in the trench; however the discharge of the
tremie pipe always remains embedded in the fresh concrete. The slurry, which is displaced
by the concrete, is saved and reused for subsequent panel excavations. When the concrete
sets, the end pipes are withdrawn. Similarly, secondary panels are constructed between the
primary panels, and the process continues to create a continuous wall. The finished walls
may cantilever or require anchors or props for lateral support.

Fig. 6.8. Construction Stages of a Diaphragm Wall using Slurry Trench Technique.

4. Special type of retaining walls

 Gabion walls

Gabion walls are constructed by stacking and tying wire cages filled with trap rock or native stone on top of
one another. They can have a continuous batter (gently sloping) or be stepped back (terraced) with each
successively higher course.

This is a good application where the retaining wall needs to allow high amounts of water to pass through it, as
in the case of riverbank stabilization. It is important to use a filter fabric with the gabion to keep adjacent soil
from flowing into or through the cages along with the water. As relatively flexible structures, they are useful in
situations where movement might be anticipated. Vegetation can be re-established around the gabions and
can soften the visible edges allowing them to blend into the surrounding landscape. For local roads, they are a
preferred low-cost retaining structure.

Fig. 6.9 (i) Gabion Wall

Fig.6.9 (ii) Gabion Wall

 Crib Walls

Crib walls have been made of various materials including wood, concrete and even plastic. The cribs are made
of interlocking headers and stretchers that are stacked like the walls of a log cabin. Crib walls are usually quite
large and can be out of scale and character with the surrounding landscape. In addition, heavy construction
equipment is required to lay the courses, possibly impacting sensitive areas. It can be used for moderate
heights of 4m to 6m

Fig. 6.10(i) Crib Wall

Fig> 6.10(ii) Crib Wall

Recap

In this section you have learnt the following.

 Gravity walls
 Semi Gravity Retaining Wall
 Flexible walls
 Special type of retaining walls
Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Design Requirement for Gravity walls

Design Requirement for Gravity walls

Gravity Retaining walls are designed to resist earth pressure by their weight. They are constructed of the
mass, concrete, brick or stone masonry. Since these materials can not resist appreciable tension, the design
aims at preventing tension in the wall. The wall must be safe against sliding and overturning. Also the
maximum pressure exerted on the foundation soil should exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

So before the actual design, the soil parameters that influence the earth pressure and the bearing capacity of
the soil must be evaluated. These include the unit weight of the soil, the angle of the shearing resistance, the
cohesion intercept and the angle of wall friction. Knowing these parameters, the lateral earth pressure and
bearing capacity of the soil determined.

Fig-6.12 (a)

Fig-6.12(b)
Fig. 6.12a shows a typical trapezoidal section of a gravity retaining wall.

The forces acting on the wall per unit length are:

 Active Earth pressure Pa
.
 The weight of the Wall (W c)

 The Resultant soil reaction R on the base. (or Resultant of weight W c & Pa ).Strike the base at point
D. There is equal and opposite reaction R' at the base between the wall and the foundation.

 Passive earth pressure Pp acting on the lower portion of the face of the wall, which
usually small and usually neglected for design purposes. The full mobilization of
passive earth pressure not occurs at the time of failure so we not consider it. If we
consider it then it shows resistance against instability. So if we ignore it then we
will be in safer side.

First decide which theory we want to apply for calculating the active earth pressure.
Normally we calculate earth pressure using Rankine's theory or Coulomb's Earth
pressure theory.

For using Rankine's theory, a vertical line AB is drawn through the heel point

(Fig 6.12-b). It is assumed that the Rankine active condition exist along the vertical line AB. While
checking the stability, the weight of the soil ( Ws) above the heel in the zone ABC should also be
taken in to consideration, in addition to the Earth pressure ( Pa) and weight of the wall (Wc).

But Coulomb's theory gives directly the lateral pressure Pa on the back face of the wall, the forces to
be considered only Pa (Coulomb) and the Weight of the wall ( Wc). In this case, the weight of soil
(Ws) is need not be considered.

Once the forces acting on the wall have been determined, the Stability is checked
using the procedure discussed in the proceeding section. For convenience, the
section of the retaining wall is divided in to rectangles & triangles for the
computation of the Weight and the determination of the line of action of the
Weight.
 For a safe design, the following requirement must be satisfied.

 No Sliding

Horizontal forces tend to slide the wall away from the fill. This tendency is resisted by friction at the base.

= Coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and soil (= tan ).

= Sum of the all vertical forces i.e. vertical component of inclined active force.
A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding is recommended.

 No Overturning

The wall must be safe against overturning about toe.

 No Bearing Capacity Failure and No Tension

First calculate the line of action of the Resultant force ( e ) from centre of the base.

(No Tension will develop at the heel)

The pressure at the toe of the wall must not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. The pressure at
the base is assumed to be linear. The max. Pressure at the Toe & min at the Heel is given by:

Should be less than the Safe bearing capacity ( ) of the soil & should not be Tensile in
any case. Tension is not desirable. The tensile strength of the soil is very small and tensile crack would
develop. The effective base area is reduced.

Design of Retaining Structures

Cantilever sheet pile walls [Section 27.1: Introduction]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Introduction

Types

 With concentrated load.

 Supporting earth/backfill.

Assumptions.
  Wall is smooth and vertical and earth pressure theories applicable to rigid retaining walls only.
 The pivot point should be at a depth xo from ground level and not at the sheet pile wall.
 All equilibrium equations are applicable to sheet pile wall.
 Sum over vertical moments is not required for design of sheet pile wall because weight of sheet pile
wall is considered as negligible.

Cantilever sheet pile walls [Section 27.2: Cantilever sheet pile with concentrated load.]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Cantilever sheet pile with concentrated load.

 Some problem by assuming parabolic variation.

Cantilever sheet pile with concentrated load.

Cantilever sheet piling walls depend on the passive resisting capacity of the soil below the depth of excavation
to prevent overturning. The depth of sheet piling walls below the bottom of the excavation is determined by
using the difference between the passive and active pressures acting on the wall. The theoretical depth of pile
penetration below the depth of excavation is obtained by equating horizontal forces and by taking moments
about an assumed bottom of piling. The theoretical depth of penetration represents the point of rotation of the
piling. Additional penetration is needed to obtain some fixity for the piling. Computed piling depths are
generally increased 20% to 40% to obtain some fixity and to prevent lateral movement at the bottom of the
piling.

Sum of the Horizontal moments is,

1.

H is the horizontal force at tip of pile.

Sum of the moments about point ‘O',

2. ,

& are the total earth pressure forces, and h is the height of the sheet pile above ground level.

Intensity of earth pressure is,

---------- (A)
 -------- (B)

and are active and passive earth pressure coefficients

Fig 6.13 Earth pressure diagram for sheet pile with concentrated load.

After solving (A) & (B), ------------- (c)

‘b' is the width of the sheet pile.

-------------- (D)

from (B) & (D) , ------ (E)

from (C) & (E), -------- (F)

from (F) & (C),

Where,

Factor of safety at limiting condition,

The sheet pile is stable when, and by providing

Determination of driving depth:

Determination of driving depth:

from limiting condition.

1.

2.

3. -------------------------- (G)

by substituting (G) in (2),

Solve for value of d and then find D by approximately, D=1.2d

Some problem by assuming parabolic variation:

In this case the variation of earth pressure distribution is assumed as parabolic variation as shown below,

Coefficient resistance, (linearly varying with depth)

According to Terzaghi,

Earth pressure at any depth,

Fig 6.14 Earth pressure diagram with assumed parabolic variation.

------------ (1)

-------- (2)

from (1) & (2),

Boundary conditions,

1. x=0, p=0

2. x= , p=0

3. X= /2,

4. x= /2,

5. After solving using boundary conditions the driving depth is,

And then D=1.2d.

Objectives (Cantilever sheet pile walls)

In this section you will learn the following

Cantilever sheet pile in granular soil

The pile tends to point O deflecting away from the backfill. Above the point of rotation, the sheet pile wall
deflects away from the backfill, thus generating active conditions on the back of the wall. At the same time,
between the dredge line (point e) and the point of rotation (point O), as the wall tends to move towards the soil
in front of the wall, passive conditions are generated in this side. However, below the point of rotation, the
active and passive conditions generated on the two sides are reversed. The earth pressure diagrams are
shown below.

Fig 6.15 Probable and assumed Earth pressure diagram.

The point of rotation located at distance a below the dredge line has zero earth pressure.
The magnitude of earth pressure at locations e, O and b can be worked out,

The magnitude of a is given by the equation,

Or

Let be the result of all forces above point O, acting at a distance ‘y' above O. the distance is worked out by
satisfying horizontal equilibrium equation,

Thus taking moments about base of the pile and satisfying the moment equilibrium,

The value of ‘y' can be found and then the value of D= a + y.

The computed D can be multiplied by factor 1.2 or 1.4.

Cantilever sheet pile walls [Section 27.4: Cantilever sheet pile in cohesive soil.]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Cantilever sheet pile in cohesive soil.

Cantilever sheet pile in cohesive soil.

Cantilever sheet pile in cohesive soil: the analysis of cantilever sheet pile wall in cohesive soil is carried out in
a manner almost similar to that in granular soils. However, certain phenomenon such as consolidated of clay in
passive pressure zones, formation of tension cracks in the active zone may need additional consideration.
Further, the clay may shrink and lose contact with the wall. To account for this, the benefit of wall adhesion is
usually neglected in design.

Fig 6.16 Earth pressure diagram in purely cohesive soil

The active earth pressure in purely cohesive soil is given by,

Where q is the effective vertical depth at any depth. For pure cohesive soil the frictional angle is zero then

= =1, then the above equation becomes,

Likewise, it can be shown that,

The net pressure at A is, acting to the right.

Similarly, at the base of the wall, i.e. point B, the net pressure is given by,

acting to the left.

Summing the pressure areas and satisfying the condition of stability,

or

Where is the resultant active earth pressure above the dredge line acting at ‘y' above the dredge line.

Further, some of the moments of forces about base are,

substituting the value of Z from above equation and simplified the driving depth is determined.

Driving depth = 1.2 - 1.4 D.

Lecture 28 : Anchored sheet pile walls [ Section 28.1 : Introduction ]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Introduction

Anchored sheet pile walls are held above the driven depth by anchors provided at suitable level. The anchors
provide forces for the stability of the sheet pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance of the soil into
which the sheet piles are driven.

Fig. 6.17 Anchored sheet pile wall

It includes an anchor or tieback at or near the head of the wall. More than one set of anchors or tiebacks can
be used. It increases wall stability and enables taller walls to be built and sustained almost a necessity with
vinyl, aluminium and fibreglass sheet piles. It is not exclusive to sheet piling; also used with other types of in
situ wall systems. In case of cantilever sheet pile walls if the deflection at top point of the sheet pile wall is very
large, then settlement of soil takes place at top just behind the sheet pile wall. So, to reduce the excessive
deflections the anchors are provided. The different types of anchored sheet pile walls are shown in figure.
Fig. 6.18 Different types of anchored sheet pile walls

Lecture 28 : Anchored sheet pile walls [ Section 28.2 : Different types of anchored sheet pile walls ]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Free earth support piles

 Fixed earth support piles

 Comparison between fixed earth method and free earth method

There are types of anchored sheet pile walls

1. Free earth support piles,

2. Fixed earth support piles.

3. Free earth support piles

An anchored sheet pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of embedment is small and pile
rotates at its bottom tip. Thus, there is no point of inflection in the pile. It is assumed that

 The base of the pile is relatively free to move, so passive resistance is mobilized on one face
only.
  The lateral pressure increases linearly with depth.

 Wall friction is negligible.

Fig. 6.19 Free earth support

Fixed earth support piles

An anchored sheet pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of embedment is large and the
bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotation. Thus, there is change in curvature of pile, hence inflection point
occurs. It is assumed that

 The base of the pile is relatively fixed, so that there is a point of contra-flexure above the toe of the
pile.
 Passive resistance is mobilized on both faces (similar to cantilever pile).

 The lateral pressure increases linearly with depth.

 No wall friction

Fig. 6.20 Fixed earth support

Comparison between fixed earth method and free earth method

 The free earth support method gives a pressure distribution that would apply when the wall is on the
point of failure by rotation about the anchor.
 The fixed earth support method is unlikely to represent the true loading at any stage.

 Both methods tend to over-estimate the bending moment in the pile.

 The free earth support method is simpler.

 In the fixed earth support, depth provided is more, moment through out the section reduces, so
thinner section is to be provided.
  In the free earth support, depth provided is less, moment through out the section is more than fixed
earth support, and so thicker section is to be provided.

Lecture 28: Anchored sheet pile walls [ Section 28.3 : Design of sheet pile wall by free earth support ]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Cohesion less soil

 Cohesive soils

Design of sheet pile wall by free earth support

The figure shows the condition for the free earth support. The deflection of the bulk head is some what similar
to that of a vertical elastic beam whose lower end B is simply supported and the other end is fixed as shown in
fig. 6.5.6. The forces acting on the sheet pile are:

 Active pressure due to soil behind pile,

 Passive pressure due to soil in front of the pile,

 The tension in the anchor rod.

Fig. 6.21 Conditions for free earth support of an anchored sheet pile wall

Cohesionless soil

The forces acting on the wall are shown in the fig. Assuming that the material above and below dredged level
in cohesion less.
The forces acting on the wall are shown in the fig. Assuming that the material above and below dredged level
in cohesion less

Fig. 6.22 Forces acting on sheet pile in free earth support case (Cohesionless soil)

From horizontal equilibrium,

Where,

T is the tensile force in the anchor,

is the resultant earth pressure acting below the dredged level for b height of the wall,

is the resultant earth pressure acting for (h + a) height of the wall.

The depth ‘a’ to the point of zero pressure can be determined by equating the earth pressure on both the side
of the sheet pile.

Therefore,
Lecture 28: Anchored sheet pile walls [Section 28.3: Design of sheet pile wall by free earth
support]

Taking moments of all forces about anchor point M,

(a + h – e - )– (h – e + a +2b/3) = 0

Where,

a is the distance of the zero earth pressure point below dredged level,

h is height of the sheet pile above the dredged level,

e is the distance of the anchor from the top level of sheet pile, generally taken as 1 to 1.5m,

is the distance between point of application of force and O point.

Substituting the value of in the above equation,

(a + h – e - )– ( – ) b (b/2) (h – e + a +2b/3 ) = 0

The above equation can be written as,

( – )( /3) + ( – )( /2) (g+a) – f=0

or

Where, f = a + h – e - and g = h – e.

The above equation can be solved for b. Then, d is determined as,

d = b + a.

The actual depth D is taken equal to 1.2 to 1.4 times d.

The force in the anchor rod can be calculated as,

The values of and are determined from the pressure diagrams.

  Cohesive soils

Consider the case, the sheet pile is driven in clay ( = 0), but has the backfill of cohesionless soil as shown in
fig. The earth pressure distribution above the dredged line is same as that in case of cohesionless soil.
However the pressure below the dredge line at any point at a distance of z from dredged level is given as,

For =0, = = 1.0.

Therefore, = 2c + 2c – h = 4c – h

Where,

‘h’ is the height of the sheet pile above the dredged level,

C is the cohesion and is the unit weight of the soil.

Fig. 6.23 Forces acting on sheet pile in free earth support case (cohesive soil)

From the horizontal equilibrium of the forces,

or – d=T
Where, T is the tensile force in the anchor, is the resultant earth pressure acting below the dredged level,

is the resultant earth pressure acting above the dredged level.

Taking moments of all the forces about M,

f– d (g + d/2) = 0

Substituting the value of = 4c – h in the above equation,

f – (4c – h ) d (g + d/2) = 0

or
where,

g is the distance of the tendon above dredged level,

f is the distance between the point of application of force and tendon (M) = g – .

The above equation can be solved for d.

The actual depth provided is 20 to 40% more than d.

The force in the anchor rod can be calculated as,

The values of and are determined from the pressure diagrams.

The wall becomes unstable when becomes zero.

4c – h = 0, or

In the above equation, is the stability number. Therefore the wall becomes unstable when stability
number = 0.25.

Lecture 28: Anchored sheet pile walls [Section 28.4: Design of sheet pile wall by fixed earth support]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Design of sheet pile wall by fixed earth support.

Design of sheet pile wall by fixed earth support

Figure shows the deflected shape of an anchored sheet pile with fixed earth support. The elastic line changes
its curvature at the inflection point I. the soil into which the soil is driven exerts a large restraint on the lower
part of the pile and causes the change in the curvature. The distance of the inflection point below dredged
level (i) can be related to the internal friction angle ( ) as given in table 1.

Table 1 Relation between Distance of the inflection point below dredged level (i) and Friction angle ( )
 Friction angle ( ) 20 0 25 0 30 0 40 0

Distance of the inflection point below

0.25h 0.15h 0.08h -0.007h
dredged level (i)

Where, h is the height of the sheet pile wall above the dredged level.

Fig. 6.24 Forces acting on sheet pile in fixed earth support case

As exact analysis of the anchored sheet pile with fixed earth support is complicated, an approximate method
known as equivalent beam method is generally used. It is assumed that the sheet pile is a beam which is
simply supported at anchor point M and fixed at the lower end K. Figure shows the bending moment diagram.
The bending moment is zero at the inflection point I. The beam is divided into two parts as shown in figure.
The following procedure is used for the analysis:

(a) For beam AI:

 Determine the pressure at the dredged level,

 Determine the distance I of the inflection point from table 1.

 Determine the distance a i.e. the point of zero earth pressure,

 determine the pressure at the point of inflection as

 determine the reaction for the beam IB by taking moments about point M of the anchor.
 Fig. 6.25 Equivalent beam method

(b) For beam IK:

 determine pressure as

or

 determine distance (d-a) by taking moments of the forces in beam IK about K. the reaction of
the lower beam is equal and opposite to the upper beam.
 Calculate depth d from equation in step. The provided depth (D) of sheet pile is 20% higher than
d.

D = 1.2 d

 determine the tension T in the anchor by considering equilibrium of IA beam,

T= -

Where, is the total force due to pressure on IB.

Anchored sheet pile walls [Section 28.5: Moment reduction for anchored wall]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Moment reduction for anchored wall

Moment reduction for anchored wall

Rowe (1952) demonstrated that the Free Earth method overestimates the maximum bending moment in
anchored walls with horizontal tie rods. The sheet piles are relatively flexible and these deflect considerably.
Their flexibility causes a redistribution of the lateral earth pressure. The net effect is that the maximum bending
moment is considerably reduced below the value obtained for the free earth supports. It is used to take into
consideration the flexibility of the pile and its effect on relieving the actual bending moment the wall

experiences. The reduced bending moment for design ( ) is given by

Where

= maximum bending moment predicted by the Free Earth method

= reduction factor depending on wall geometry, wall flexibility, and foundation soil characteristics.

 Moment reduction factor for granular foundation soils. When the soil below the dredge line is

granular, the magnitude of the reduction factor is a function of a flexibility number given by

Where, H = total length of the sheet piling (ft),

E = modulus of elasticity of the pile material (psi),

I = moment of inertia (in 4) per foot of wall.

Curves of are given in fig. for "loose" and "dense" foundation material and several system geometries.

 Moment reduction factor for cohesive foundation soils. Moment reduction factors for piles in

homogeneous cohesive soils also depend on the stability number ( ) given by

Where, c = cohesive strength of the soil,

= effective vertical soil pressure on the retained side of the wall at the elevation of the dredge line. The

curves for are given for various combinations of system parameters in Figure
Fig. 6.26 Rowe's moment reduction coefficients for sand (after Bowles, 1982)
 Fig. 6.27 Rowe's moment reduction coefficients for clays (after Bowles, 1982)

Lecture 29: Braced cuts [Section 29.1: Introduction]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Introduction

Deep excavations with vertical sides require lateral supports to prevent cave in of the earth and to protect the
adjacent areas against ground subsidence and lateral movement of the subsoil. When excavations are shallow
and ample space is available, the sides of the excavation can be sloped at a safe angle to ensure stability.
However, in deep excavation, especially in built up areas there may not be adequate space for providing safe
slopes. Moreover it becomes uneconomical to provide safe slope because of large quantities of earth involved.
Fig-6.28 Braced cuts

Excavations which are laterally supported are Braced cuts (Fig-6.6.1-a). The vertical sides of the excavations
are supported by a sheeting and bracing system. It consists of relatively flexible sheeting placed against
excavations walls. The lateral thrust on the sheeting is resisted by the horizontal members in compression
(struts).Known as Bracing system. Bracing is provided as the excavation proceeds and the face of the
sheeting becomes exposed. So, various types of the Bracing systems is adopted to make the excavation
stable When no plenty space is available for excavation in a natural slopes. Sheet piling is used primarily as a
bulkhead to hold or restrict the lateral movement behind it. Some typical uses of Braced Excavation are

 Laying underground pipeline

 Construction of bridge abutment.

 Construction of basement.

 Metro railway construction.

 Construction of subway tunnel.

A Gravity Retaining wall is a Permanent Structure, used, when an excavation is permanent. But when
excavation is temporary i.e. excavation for buildings or subway, the excavation is filled with a structure which
then permanently retain surrounding soil/earth. If the temporary Excavation is made in sand, the walls of the
excavation must be supported during construction of the building by a system of bracing.

Lecture 29: Braced cuts [Section 29.2: Different types of the Sheeting and Bracing systems]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Vertical Timber Sheeting

 Steel Sheet Piles

 Soldier Beams

 Tie Backs

The following types of sheeting and bracing system for braced cuts are commonly used:

 Vertical Timber Sheeting

In this method, vertical timber sheeting consisting of the planks about 8 to 10 cm. thick are driven around the
boundary of the proposed excavation to a depth below the base of the excavation. The soil between the
sheeting is excavated. The sheeting is held in place by a system of Wales and struts. The Wales are the
horizontal beams running parallel to the excavation wall. The Wales are supported by the horizontal struts
which extend from the side of the excavations.
Fig –6.29 Vertical timber sheeting

However, if the excavations are relatively wide, it becomes economical to support the Wales by inclined struts,
known as rakers (fig-6.6.2b). For inclined struts to be successful, it is essential that the soil in the base of the
excavation is strong enough to provide adequate reaction.

If the soil can temporarily support itself an excavation of limited depth without an external support, the timber
sheeting can be installed in the open or in a partially completed excavation. Vertical timber sheetings are
economical up to a depth of 4 to 6 meter

 Steel Sheet Piles

Piles, or sheeting, driven in close contact to form a continuous interlocking wall which resists the lateral
pressure of water or earth. In this method, the steel sheet pile is driven around the boundary of the proposed
excavations. A continuous line of pile is driven in advance of excavation. As the soil is excavated from the
enclosure Wales and struts are placed.

Fig- 6.30 Steel sheet Piles

The Wales are made of the steel. The lateral thrust from the sides is resisted by horizontal members called the
struts are placed across the excavation And wedged against the Wales. The struts may be of the steel or
wood. As he Excavations Progresses, another set of Wales and struts is inserted. The process is continued till
the excavation is complete. It is recommended that the sheet piles should be driven several meters below the
bottom of excavation to prevent local heaves. If the width of a deep excavation is large, inclined bracing may
be used. Figure shows the details of the joint J.

The upper strut is placed when the excavation is shallow and little lateral yield of soil has occurred to change
appreciably the original state of stress. As excavation proceeds downward the lower part of the face is freely to
yield inward before it could be restrained by the next strut. The inward yield of soil increase with an increase in
the depth of excavation. Thus problem is analogues to a retaining wall tilting about its top. The sheeting tilts
about its tops.

 Soldier Beams

Soldier beams are H-piles which are driven at suitable spacing of 1.5 to 2.5 m. around the boundary of the
proposed excavation

Fig-6.31 Soldier Beam

As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber planks called lagging are placed between the soldier beams.
When the excavation advances to the suitable depth, Wales and the struts are inserted. The lagging is
properly wedged between piles flanges or behind thee back flange.

 Tie Backs

In this method, no bracing in the form of struts or inclined rakes is provided. Therefore, there is no hindrance to
the construction activity to be carried out inside the excavated area. The tie back is a rod or a cable connected
to the sheeting or lagging on one side and anchored into the soil or rock out side of the excavation area (Fig-
6.6.5). Inclined holes are drilled in to the soil Or Rock, and the tensile reinforcement (tendon) is then inserted
and the hole is concreted. An enlargement or bell is usually formed at the end of the hole. Each tie back is
generally prestressed before the depth of excavation is increased further to cope with the increased tension.

Fig-6.32 Tie Back

Use of slurry Trenches

An alternative to use of sheeting and bracing system, which is being increasingly used these days, is the
construction of slurry trenches around the area to be excavated. The trench is excavated and is kept filled with
a heavy, viscous slurry bentonite of the clay water mixture. The slurry stabilizes the wall of the trenches, and
thus the excavation can be done without sheeting and bracing. Concrete is then placed through a tremie.
Concrete displaces the slurry. Reinforcement can also be placed before concreting, if required. Generally, the
exterior walls are constructed in a slurry trench.

Lecture 29: Braced cuts [Section 29.3: Lateral earth Pressure on Sheetings]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Lateral earth Pressure on Sheetings

 Non uniform soils

Lateral earth Pressure on Sheetings

Rankine's and coulomb earth pressure theory can not be used for the computation of the lateral earth pressure
on sheetings, as those theories are applicable to rigid retaining walls rotating about the base. The sheeting
and bracing system is somewhat flexible and rotation takes place at the top of the wall. Sheeting are placed
against the walls of the excavation when these are shallow. The upper strut is placed when the excavation is
shallow and the lateral yield of the soil has occurred. As the excavation proceeds downwards, the lower part of
the face is free yield inward before the next strut is placed. The inward yield of the soil increases with an
increase in the depth of excavation. Thus the sheeting tilts about its top. The method of earth pressure of
calculation has been developed by Terzaghi based on the observations of actual loads in struts in full scale
excavations in sand in BERLIN and in soft clay in CHICAGO. Pressure distributions against the sheeting have
been approximated on the assumptions that each strut supports the sheeting area. The effect of various
factors is not fully understood. However, the results of the field studies can be used as a basis for developing
earth pressure diagram required for the design of the bracing system. The pressure diagram recommended for
design represent an envelope which encompass the actual pressure distribution diagram obtained from the
field tests. These design pressure diagram are also known as apparent pressure diagram.

Fig. shows the apparent pressure diagram suggested by the Peck (1969) Fig. Gives the pressure diagram for

braced cut in dry or moist sand. The pressure diagram is uniform with a pressure ( ) equal to 1.6( /H) or

(0.65. .H. ).

Where is Rankine's earth pressure coefficient, given by .

And = Total normal active pressure on a wall of height H determined by coulomb theory.

The resultant active earth pressure diagram is 28% greater than the coulomb active pressure for dense sand &
44% greater than for loose sand. Since, the sheeting can not resist, in general, the vertical shear forces, the
friction and adhesion on them are assumed to be Zero.

Fig shows the pressure diagram for the clay.

 Fig-6.33. Apparent Pressure Diagram

N= stability no. =

If < 4.0 the pressure envelop shown in Fig (a) is used.

The value of the Pa varies between 0.2. . H to 0.4. .H. Average vale will be taken (0.3. .H).

If > 4.0, the pressure envelop shown in Fig (b) is used. The Pressure is taken as ( .H- 4.C) or

(0.3 . .H).

or = . .H = [1-m ] (m depends on N. N<4.0 m = 0.6 to 0.8 & N>4.0 m = 1.0 )

Non uniform soils

When the braced cuts passes through the no. of clay layers of both sand and clay, an equivalent value

of cohesion & is determined using the following equations( Peck 1943 ):

Fig- 6.34 Stratified soil

Where , ,…. are undrained cohesion of layers 1,2,…n and , ,…. are the
thickness of layers.

When braced cut passes through layers of both sand and clay(fig-), an equivalent value of cohesion
(assume = 0) is determined using the peck(1943) eq. :

Where H= Total height of the cut, = Unit weight of the sand, = Height of the sand layer, = a lateral

earth pressure coefficient ( = 1). = angle of friction of sand, = Unconfined compressive strength of
clay, n'= a coefficient of progressive failure (average value 0.75).

The equivalent unit weight of the layer is determined from the equation:

Where = Saturated unit weight of clay layer.

Now N value is calculated by

Lecture 29: Braced cuts [Section 29.4: Failure Analysis Of Bracing Systems]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Bottom heave
 Clay bursting

Stability considerations:

There are various methods by which a braced cut can be expected to attain failure. Before carrying out a
braced excavation the stability criteria are first judged and adequate steps are taken up to ensure the stability.
Building of struts or walls nor wales cannot prevent these phenomenon. These aspects are described in the
subsequent sections.

1. Bottom heave

Consider a excavation pit as shown in the figure and the rectangular soil mass adjacent to it. If this soil mass is
considered as a foundation with the failure surfaces as shown the heaving of soil will occur at the bottom of the
pit due to release of overburden pressure at that point. The pit has to be safeguarded against this heaving.

Fig.6.35 Bottom heave

2. Clay bursting

This occurs when a impermeable layer (clay) lies over a permeable layer (sand). At level 1-
1, when there is no excavation, full overburden pressure exists. When excavation occurs, at
level BC some overburden pressure is released. At the same level 1-1, upward water
pressure exists due to presence of sand layer. When no excavation occurs the total
overburden pressure is greater than the upthrust, but the layer of soil below the excavation
pit may not have sufficient depth to resist the uplift force. Hence if the uplift force the
excavation level becomes more, the clay layer bursts open.
Fig . 6.36 Clay Bursting

Once the stability against bottom heave and clay bursting are achieved, the next step is to ensure the
structural stability of the braced excavation. These include the following:

 Yielding of supports

Due to earth pressure on both sides of the excavation pit, compressive stresses are generated on the struts.
When this force increases beyond safety the struts may yield.

 Excessive ground movements

Braced excavation is carried out in places where there is scarcity of place in the
surrounding to make a stable inclined slope. Now during excavation as the earth is being
removed the pit, the pressure of the foundations of the adjacent buildings tend to create
pressure on the soil mass leading to the movement of the surrounding soil into the pit and
there by the surrounding structures are distressed. The above phenomenon is more critical
for a small structure in the vicinity than a large one.

Lecture 29: Braced cuts [Section 29.5: Stability checks for designing a braced excavation:]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Stability against bottom heave

 Stability against piping failure or clay bursting

 Piping failure

Stability checks for designing a braced excavation

 Stability against bottom heave

The analysis is a total stress analysis since the time of dissipation of pore water pressure is
very less unless there is sandy deposit. Consider a stratified soil deposit in which braced
excavation was carried out as shown in the figure
Fig. 6.37 Excavation with diaphragm walls showing bottom heave

First the stability is to be checked at the excavation level as follows:

= c. is the force that resists the heave which is brought about by the weight of soil of magnitude
magnitude H.

The stability factor is calculated as S = H/ .

If, S< 6 ------ stable, where is taken as 6.

S > 6 ------- unstable.

S = 6 ------- limiting condition.

If unstability criteria occurs the idea is to increase the depth of the diaphragm wall in order to take advantage
of the layers of higher strength lying below. The failure plane as shown cannot penetrate through the hard
stratum and is tangent to the same. This is shown in the fig. 6.7.3.

F.O.S should be more than 2 for bottom heave. The depth is calculated as follows:
  = D, since failure surface cannot penetrate the hard stratum.

 = 0.7B, which is obtained from bearing capacity analysis..

 is taken as least of the above two values.

 Stability against piping failure or clay bursting

Consider the following fig. which shows the clay bursting phenomenon.

Fig. 6.38 Excavation with diaphragm walls showing clay bursting

The cohesive force along the failure plane resists the movement of the soil mass upwards and therefore acts
as a resistive force.

The factor of safety for clay bursting should be more than 1.3.

Piping failure

For piping failure, the factor of safety = i / . where, i is the exit gradient and is the critical gradient. Factor
of safety for piping failure should be more than 1.3.

Piping in sand
Fig.6.39 Piping in sand

Table 2

Case 1 (sand upto infinite depth)

F.O.S = 1.5 F.O.S = 2.0

d/H d/H
B/H
Dense sand Dense sand
Loose sand Loose sand

0.5 1.2 1.05 1.75 1.7

1.0 1.1 0.85 1.50 1.3

2.0 0.9 0.65 1.20 0.9

3.0 0.8 0.50 1.05 0.75

4.0 0.75 0.50 1.04 1.07

Case 2 (sand upto finite depth)

F.O.S = 1.5 F.O.S = 2.0

d/H d/H
B/H

/ H=1 / H=2 / H=1 / H=2

0.5 0.70 1.10 0.80 1.50

1.0 0.55 0.80 0.75 1.10

2.0 0.40 0.65 0.50 0.45

3.0 0.35 0.45 0.50 0.55

 4.0 0.35 0.45 0.50 0.55

Lecture 29: Braced cuts [Section 29.6: Design of the structural members]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Design of struts
 Design of diaphragm walls

 Design of wales

 Excessive ground movement

Design of the structural members

Design of struts:

The struts are the structural members whose function is to transfer the earth pressure coming on the diaphragm walls due to the
earth pressure from the surrounding soil. For calculation of the struts loads, Peck (1969) proposed apparent earth pressure diagrams
to be used for the designing of the bracing systems. The diagrams are given in figure.

Fig 6.40. Apparent earth pressure diagrams (Peck, 1969)

For sands, p = 0.65 , where, = ( 1- sin )/( 1+sin )

H = height of the vertical cut.

For clays, p = (1 - ),

Where, m = coefficient depending on the stability of the wall

For S<4, m = 0.6 – 0.8.

For S>4, m = 1.0. {S = }

Fig. 6.41 Apparent earth pressure acting on diaphragm wall

The apparent earth pressure acting on diaphragm wall is chosen as per the type of soil existing in the field. For each strut we get an
effective zone over which the earth pressure acts. Usually the earth pressure zones extend from centreline of one strut to that of the

other, which implies that each strut takes the earth pressure on either halves upto half the vertical spacing ( ) . As shown zones
1, 2, 3 apply pressure on the struts 1, 2, 3. For zone 4, it is assumed that the soil in that portion does not apply pressure and it is
taken up by the underlying soil. Each strut load is calculated by multiplying the effective area of action of earth pressure with the
apparent earth pressure (p). Usually the vertical spacing of the struts is taken between 3-4 m. The highest strut load is taken up for
choosing the section of the struts and same section is provided throughout.

 Design of diaphragm walls:

For design of the diaphragm walls the wall is assumed to lie as a beam and the pressure distribution acting on it as shown in the
figure

Fig 6.42 Load on Diaphragm wall

From the pressure distribution the exact moment and forces acting on the struts and the wall can be calculated. However, for all

practical purposes, the maximum bending moment acting on the wall ( ) = / 10, where l = . Accordingly the
section

of the diaphragm wall is chosen based on the moment acting on it.

Design of wales:

The wales are structural members which transfer the load from the diaphragm walls to the struts thereby acting as beams. The

design of struts is done as simply supported beams as shown in fig. 6.7.9. Maximum moment on wales = (p. ). /8.
Fig. 6.43 Plan of struts and wales along with loading arrangement

Excessive ground movement

The various structural members are constructed to minimize ground movements in the vicinity. However, wall cannot be infinitely
rigid. Irrespective of placing of struts, diaphragm wall movement cannot be prevented. After some excavation is done, before a strut
is placed there is a certain movement of the wall. Also, between subsequent placing of struts certain movement of wall occurs. As a
result, the ground movement occurs locally. If the joints are subjected to such movements excessive forces may generate leading to
the distress of the structure. Therefore whatever ground movement occurs, it has to be limited to a minimum value. Total ground
movement is the sum total of the ground movement and the bottom heaving. The idea of proving structural members is to minimize
ground movements. More rigid the structure, lesser is the ground movement. Peck (1969) proposed a graph which indicated the
ground movements and their extent for a excavation site and site conditions as shown in figure

Fig 6.44. Amount and extent of ground settlement (Peck, 1969)

Before conducting any excavation, depending on site and soil conditions, we can estimate the maximum settlement and
extent of settlement that is going to occur when a excavation is carried out at that site. It is to be noted that Peck's analysis
was based on experiments done over sheet pile walls. Therefore, if the rigidity of the structural members can be increased
the settlement values can be minimized and whatever settlement we could have got for a sheet pile wall in zone III can be
found to fall in zone II due to a more rigid structure. Hence after finding out the extent of settlement it has to be judged
whether any surrounding structure falls within that range.

Dewatering [Section 30.1: Introduction]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Introduction

Dewatering is a process of removal of water from a foundation pit when it is situated below the ground water table or when it is
surrounded by a cofferdam. The purpose of dewatering is to keep the excavation dry so that concreting can be done. Dewatering is
temporary if it is done at the time of construction. It is followed by restoration to its original water table after the structure has been be
completed. Permanent dewatering is required for removing subsurface gravitational water throughout the life of the structure. It may
be necessary to keep the water away from the structure to check the dampness or other ill effects.

Dewatering is required for:

Deep basement below water table

 power houses
 tunnels
 pumping stations

Purposes of dewatering:

 Control seepage and lowering of water table

 to prevent piping or clay bursting
 Increase slope stability

Lecture 30: Dewatering [Section 30.2: Methods of Dewatering]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

 Open sumps and ditches

 Well point systems
 Deep well drainage
 Vacuum Dewatering Systems
 Electro Osmosis

Lecture 30: Dewatering [Section 30.2: Methods of Dewatering]

Methods of Dewatering

Ground water can be controlled by adopting one or more types of dewatering systems appropriate to the size and
characteristics of the soil. The different types of methods involved in dewatering are:

 Open sumps and ditches

 Well point systems
 Deep well drainage
 Vacuum Dewatering Systems
 Electro Osmosis

Open Sumps and Ditches

The essential feature of this method is a sump below the ground level of the excavation at one or more corners or sides.. a
small ditch is cut around the bottom of the excavation , falling towards the sump. It is the most widely used and economical of
all methods of ground water lowering. This method is also more appropriate in situations where boulders or other massive
obstructions are met with the ground. There is also a disadvantage that the groundwater flows towards the excavation with a
high head or a steep slope and hence there is a risk of collapse of the sides.

Fig 6.45 Dewatering Through Sumps

 Well Point System

Well points are small well screens of sizes 50 to 80 mm in diameter and 0.3 to 1m length. Well points are either with braces or
stainless steel screens and are made with either closed ends or self jetting types. Spacing of the well points depends on the
permeability of the soil and on the availability of the time to affect the drawdown. In fine to coarse sands a spacing of 0.75 to 1m is
satisfactory. A spacing of 1.5 m may be necessary in silty sands of fairly low permeability. In highly permeable coarse gravels they
may be as close as 0.3m.

Fig. 6.47 Well Points in Braced Excavation

A serious limiting of well point system is the suction lift. A lowering of about 6m below pump level is generally possible
beyond which excessive air shall be drawn into the system through joint in the pipes, valves etc., resulting in loss of
efficiency. If the ground is consistently mainly of large gravel, stiff clay or soil containing cobbles or boulders it is not
possible to install all points. For dewatering deeper excavations, the well points must be installed in two or more stages as
shown in figure 6.8.1c. There is no limit to the depth of draw down in this way, but the overall width of excavation at
ground level becomes very large. On the other hand, it is possible to avoid multi-well point stages by excavating don to
water level before installing the pump and header. When well points are used in braced excavations, figure 6.8.d, they are
placed closed to the toes of the sheet piles. This is done in order to ensure lowering the water level between the sheet
pile rows. Well points are provided in conjunction with the sheet piles under the following conditions.

 To prevent quick condition of the bottom when the sheet piles are of limited penetration.
 To eliminate hydrostatic pressure on the back of a sheet pile coffer dam, thus allowing higher bracing to be used.

Fig 6.48 Multi Stage Well Point System

 Deep Well Drainage

Deep well drainage system consists of deep wells and submersible or turbine pumps which can be installed outside the zone of
construction operations and the water table lowered to the desire level. Deep wells are usually spaced from 8-80 meters depending
upon the level to which water table must be lowered, permeability of the sand stratum, source of seepage and amount of
submergence available.
Fig. 6.49 Deep well dewatering

Deep well system is suitable for lowering the ground water table where the soil formation is pervious with depth; the excavation
extends through or is underlain by coarse-grained soils. This method is also suitable when a great depth of water-lowering is
required or where a head due to artesian pressure has to be lowered in permeable strata at a considerable depth below the
excavation level. Deep wells may be combined with the well point system on certain field conditions for lowering the ground water
tables.

 Vacuum dewatering systems

Gravity methods, such as well points and deep wells are not much effective in the fine-grained soils with permeability in the range of
0.1 –10 x 10 -3 mm/s. Such soils can be dewatered satisfactorily by applying a vacuum to the piping system. A vacuum dewatering
system requires that the well-point screens, and rise a pipe be surrounded with filter sand extending to within a few metres of the
ground surface. This method is most suitable in layered or stratified soils with coefficient of permeability of the range 0.11 - 0 x 10 -4
cm/s.

Figure 6.50 Vacuum Dewatering Systems

 Dewatering by electro osmosis

When an external electro motive force is applied across a solid liquid interface the movable diffuse double layer is displaced
tangentially with respect to the fixed layer. this is electro osmosis. As the surface of fine grained soil particles causes negative
charge, the positive ions in solution are attracted towards the soil particles and concentrate near the surfaces. Upon application of
the electro motive force between two electrodes in a soil medium the positive ions adjacent to the soil particles and the water
molecules attached to the ions are attracted to the cathode and are repelled by the anode. The free water in the interior of the void
spaces is carried along to the cathode by viscous flow. By making the cathode a well, water can be collected in the well and then
pumped out.

Lecture 30: Dewatering [Section 30.3: Design steps for dewatering systems]

Objectives

In this section you will learn the following

  Subsoil investigation
 Source And Water Table Details
 Distance of well points from the source of seepage
 Effective Wall Radius r u
 Discharge computations.

 Design steps for dewatering systems

Design of a dewatering system requires the determination of the number, size, spacing, and penetration of wells or well points and
the rate at which water must be removed from the pervious strata to achieve the required groundwater lowering or pressure relief.
The size and capacity of pumps and collectors also depend on the required discharge and drawdown.

The essential steps involved in the designing of the dewatering system are given below:

 Subsoil investigation

The characteristics of the soils adjacent and beneath the excavation should be investigated well. Grain size distribution and
permeability are the two parameters to be determined. Indian Standard recommends a field pumping test for this case.

 Source And Water Table Details

Source of seepage and knowledge of the water table at a particular site are the most important factors to be considered while
designing a dewatering system. The source of seepage depends on the geological features of the area, nearby streams or water
bodies and amount of drawdown. A flow may be from an aquifer being drained the distance to which is known as the radius of
influence. It can be estimated from the draw down curve established from a field pumping test.

 Distance of well points from the source of seepage

If the radius of influence R is large compared to the radius of the well, only an approximate estimation of R may be sufficient since
the discharge is not much sensitive to the value of R

An accurate estimation of the distance L from the well to the river should be made for a particular dewatering system, since the
discharge is inversely proportional to the value of L.

 Effective Wall Radius r u

The effective wall radius is decided based on the installation of the wells with or without filter. If a well is installed without gravel or a
sand filter the effective radius can be taken as one half the outer diameter of the well screen. If a filter is used, the well radius is
taken as one half the outside diameter of the filter

 Discharge computations

The discharge Q of the well is then calculated using the formula given below:

Where Q is the discharge, k is the permeability, H is the depth of strata, h is the height of water in the well, r is the radius of well, R is
the radius of influence.

Module 6: Design of Retaining Structures

Problems & Solutions