RETAINING WALLS

Definition and Function

Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting the soil mass
laterally so that the soil can be retained at different levels on the two sides.
Retaining walls are usually required to resist a combination of earth and
hydrostatic loadings. The fundamental requirement is that the wall can hold the
retained materials in place without undue movement arising from deflection,
overturning or sliding. Generally, the soil masses are vertical or nearly vertical
behind the retaining structure. The retaining wall therefore maintains the soil at
different levels or elevations on either side. In the absence of retaining wall, the
soil on the higher side would tend to slide and may not remain stable.

Retaining walls are found in the built environment especially at bridge sides,
riverbank area and even in the house in sloppily terrains. Other retaining structures
like swimming pools, concrete water tanks or reservoirs and basements are,
however, precluded in this discussion.

Types of retaining walls

There are basically three types of retaining walls, though there may be
variations. The basic types of retaining walls include (i) Gravity, (ii) cantilever and
(iii) counterfort.

1. Gravity Retaining Walls: they are usually constructed of mass concrete,

with reinforcement included in the faces for resistance of thermal and
shrinkage cracking. Their self-weight is used to satisfy stability requirements
in respect of overturning and sliding forces. These walls can be used for
heights up to 3m, but beyond this, it becomes un-economical.

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 It is generally taken as a requirement that under working conditions
the resultant of the self-weight and overturning forces must be within the
middle third at the interface of the base and soil. This is to ensure that uplift
is avoided at the interface. The fraction effects which resist sliding are also
thus maintained across the entire area. It should also be noted that bending,
shear and deflection of such walls are usually insignificant in view of the
large effective depth of the section.

2. Cantilever Retaining Walls: Cantilever retaining walls are made of

reinforced concrete. The wall consists of a thin stem and a base slab cast
monolithically. They are more economical in the use of materials for
construction. Cantilever retaining walls rely more on the weight of the
backfill on the base to provide stability. They are found to be economical up
to a height of about 8m.

3. Counterfort Retaining Walls: Counterfort retaining walls have thin vertical

slabs known as counterforts, spaced across the vertical stem at regular
intervals (Arora, 2010). The counterforts tie the vertical stem with the base
slab. Thus the vertical stem and the base slab span between the counterforts.
The purpose of providing the counterforts is to reduce the shear force and
bending moments in the vertical stem and base slab.

The basis of design of counterfort walls is that the earth pressures act
on a thin wall which spans horizontally between the massive counterforts.
These must be sufficiently large to provide the necessary dead load for
stability requirements, possibly with the aid of the weight of the backfill on
an enlarged base (Mosley, Bungey & Hulse, 1999).

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 The advantage of this form of construction is that the volume of
concrete involved is considerably reduced, thereby removing many of the
problems of large pours, and reducing the quantities of excavation.
Counterfort walls are probably used where the overall height of wall is too
large to be constructed economically either in mass concrete or as a
cantilever. Counterfort retaining walls are economical for a height more than
8m.

The disadvantage however is the increased shuttering complications

and the probable need to increase reinforcement.

Fig. 1.

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(a) Gravity Wall

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 (b)
Cantilever Wall

(c) Counterfort Wall

Design Considerations of Retaining Walls

According to Oyenuga (2008) the following must be considered in the

choice and design of retaining walls.

a. Materials for Construction – The materials, labour and technology

available for construction must be considered. Where technology may
inhibit cantilevered walls, other forms may be adopted in case of basement
walls, the materials and technology for water proofing is of utmost
importance.
b. Design Technique – This involves the manipulation of design principles to
achieve a more economical design. E.g. the use of curved or folded plan

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 shape to save cost or extend the foundation to a deeper depth to reduce
sliding and overturning.
c. Construction Techniques – Where soft soil underneath the retaining wall is
encountered, piling may be used to support the walls at intervals to
advantage. The walls will be built off the coping beam serving as the pile
cap. In addition, erosion on the face of the wall should be prevented through
proper protection. Joints, where applicable, should be properly designed and
constructed so that they do not become the source of weakness to the
structure.
d. Drainage – Weep holes must be provided in the walls to prevent a buildup
of hydraulic pressures which can otherwise increase loads unduly. Drains
should be provided in front of the walls to collect water dropping from the
weep holes.
e. Service – In case where the walls are used as walls in the basement to
houses, etc., provision must be made for services to penetrate the walls
without loss of strength or functionality especially in water proofing.

Types of Lateral Earth Pressure

The design of retaining structures requires the determination of the lateral

earth pressure. The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends on a number of
factors, such as the mode of movement of the wall, the flexibility of the wall, the
properties of the soil and the drainage conditions. It is a soil-structure interaction
problem, as the earth pressure depend on the flexibility of wall. For convenience,
the retaining wall is assumed to be rigid and the soil-structure interaction effect is
neglected.

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 Lateral earth pressure can be grouped into 3 categories, depending upon the
movement of the retaining wall with respect to the soil retained. The soil retained
is also known as the backfill.

1. At-Rest Pressure – The lateral earth pressure is called at-rest pressure

when the soil mass is not subjected to any lateral yielding or movement.
This case occurs when the retaining wall is firmly fixed at its top and is not
allowed to rotate or move laterally. The figure below shows the basement
retaining walls which are restrained against the movement by the basement
slab provided at their tops. Another example of the at-rest pressure is that of
a bridge abutment wall which is restrained at its top by the bridge slab. The
at-rest pressure is also known as the elastic equilibrium, as no part of soil
mass has failed and attained the plastic equilibrium.

Fig. 2.

(a)
(b)

2. Active Pressure – A state of active pressure occurs when the soil mass
yields in such a way that it tends to stretch horizontally. It is a state of plastic

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 equilibrium as the entire soil mass is on the verge of failure. When a
retaining wall moves away from the backfill, there is a stretching of the soil
mass and the active state of earth pressure exists. In fig 2b above, the active
pressure develops on the right-hand side when the wall moves towards the
left.
3. Passive Pressure – A state of passive pressure exists when the movement of
the wall is such that it is another extreme of the limiting equilibrium
condition. In fig 2b above, the passive pressure develops on the left side of
the wall below the ground level, as the soil in this zone is compressed when
the movement of the wall is towards left. Another example of a passive earth
pressure is the pressure acting on an anchor block.

Variation of Pressure

Fig 3a shows the variation of earth pressure with the wall movement. Point
B represents the case when there is no movement of the wall. It indicates the at-rest
pressure.

Point A in Fig 3a indicates the active pressure. When the wall moves away
from the backfill (Fig 3b), some portion of the backfill located immediately behind
the wall tries to break away from the rest of the soil mass. This wedge –shaped
portion, known as the failure wedge or sliding wedge, moves downward and
outwards. The lateral earth pressure exerted on the wall is a minimum in this case.
The soil is at the verge of failure due to a decrease in the lateral stress.

Point C in Fig 3a indicates the passive pressure. When the wall moves
towards the backfill (Fig 3c), the earth pressure increases. The failure wedge
moves upward and inwards. The maximum value of the earth pressure is the

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passive earth pressure. The soil is at the verge of failure due to an increase in the
lateral stress.

In summary, we can say that the state of shear failure corresponding to the
minimum earth pressure is the active state and that corresponding to the maximum
earth pressure is the passive state. These are the two extreme conditions of the
plastic equilibrium. For all intermediate states when the soil is not in plastic
equilibrium, it is said to be an elastic equilibrium. The at-rest condition is a special
case of an elastic equilibrium when the state of stress corresponds to the condition
where there is no movement. It indicates the in-situ condition.

Fig. 3.

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 (a)

(b)
Active (c) Passive

Coulomb’s Wedge Theory

Coulomb (1776) developed a method for determination of earth pressure in

which he considered the equilibrium of the sliding wedge which is formed when
the movement of the retaining wall takes place. As discussed before, in the active
case, the sliding wedge moves downwards and outward relative to the backfill,
where as in the passive case, the sliding wedge moves upwards. The lateral
pressure on the wall is equal and opposite to the reactive force exerted by the wall
in order to keep the sliding wedge in equilibrium. The analysis is a type of limiting
equilibrium method.

The following assumptions are made:

1. The backfill is dry, cohesion-less, homogeneous, isotropic, and ideally

plastic material.
2. The slip surface is a plane surface which passes the rough the heel of the
wall.
3. The wall surface is rough. The resultant earth pressure on the wall is inclined
at an angle § to the normal to the wall, where § is the angle of friction
between the wall and the backfill.

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 4. The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body.

The magnitude of earth pressure is obtained by considering the equilibrium

of the sliding wedge as a whole.

In Coulomb’s theory, a plane surface is assumed and the lateral force

required to maintain the equilibrium of the wedge is found using the principles of
statics. The procedure is repeated for several trial surfaces. The trial surface which
gives the largest force for the active case, and the smallest force for the passive
case, is the actual failure surface. The method readily accommodates the friction
between the wall and the backfill, irregular backfill, sloping wall, surcharge loads,
etc. Although the initial theory was for dry, cohesionless soils, it has now been
extended to wet soils and cohesive soils as well. Thus coulomb’s theory is more
general than the Rankine theory.

Coulomb’s Active Pressure in Cohesionless Soils

A retaining wall with an inclined back-face and a sloping dry granular

backfill is shown in Fig. 4a. In active case, the sliding wedge ABD moves
downward, and the reaction R acts upward and inclined at an angle Φ’ with the
normal.

The sliding wedge ABD is in equilibrium under three forces:

1. Weight of the wedge (W).

2. Reaction R on the slip surface BD.
3. Reaction Pa from the wall.

Fig. 4.

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 (a) (b)

It may be noted that, at failure conditions, the shearing resistance on the

failure surface is fully mobilized and the reaction R has the maximum obliquity. It
is therefore inclined at an angle Φ’ to the normal to the failure plane. Further, Pa
acts upwards, and it is inclined at an angle δ with the normal as shown in Fig. 4a.

The force triangle is shown in Fig. 4b. As the magnitude of one force (viz.
weight W) and the direction of all three forces are known, the force triangle can be
completed. The magnitude of Pa is determined from the force triangle. The
pressure acting on the wall is equal and opposite to Pa.

The procedure is repeated after assuming another failure surface. The

surface that gives the maximum value of Pa is the critical failure plane, and the
corresponding force is the active force.

Coulomb’s method does not give the point of application of the resultant
earth pressure (Pa). The point of application is found to be approximately at the
point of intersection E of the back of retaining wall with a line CE drawn from the
centroid C of the failure wedge and parallel to the failure surface. As this
procedure is cumbersome, for convenience, the pressure distribution is sometimes
assumed to be hydrostatic on the back of the wall, and the resultant pressure Pa is
assumed to act at one third the height of the wall from the base.

The following points should be carefully noted while using Coulomb’s

theory:

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 1. For most practical cases, the backfill moves down relative to the wall in the
active case, and, therefore, the active force Pa is inclined at angle δ below
the normal as shown in Fig. 4a. However, if the wall is supported on a soft,
compressible soil, it may settle to such an extent that the movement of the
wall will be downward relative to the backfill and the relative movement of
the wedge will be upward. In such a case, the force Pa would be inclined an
angle δ above normal to the wall.
2. The angle δ is the friction angle between the soil and the wall. It may be
determined by the means of a direct shear test. For concrete walls, δ is
generally taken as 2/3Φ’. The value of δ cannot exceed Φ’, because in that
case the failure will occur in soil. If the friction angle δ is zero, and the wall
is vertical and the ground surface is horizontal, the Coulomb method gives
identical results with the Rankine method.
3. Coulomb’s theory assumes the failure surface to be a plane. The actual
failure surface is slightly curved. Fortunately, for the active case, the error is
small, and therefore the failure surface may be assumed to be plane without
any significant error.

Expression for Active Pressure

From fig. 4b, using the law of sins,

Pa w
=
sin( α−φ ' ) sin(180 0− β+δ−α+φ' )
W sin(α−φ ' )
or Pa = - - - - - - - - - - (1)
sin(180 0−β +δ−α+φ ' )

Where Pa = total active pressure force.

The weight W of the wedge ABD can be determined from fig. 5 as

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 Fig. 5.

1
W= ×ΒΕ× ΑG×γ
2
Taking AG = m, and BE = L, we have
1
W = 2 L×M ×γ
1
or W = 2 (m×r )(BG + GE) - - - - - - (2 )
Now AB = H/Sin β

m
=Sin [ 180 −( β−α ) ]=Sin ( β +α )
0
From trinagle ABG,
AB
Η sin ( β +α )
Therefore m=AB sin ( β+α ) = −−−−−−−−(3)
sin β
BG m
From triangle ABG, =
Sin ( β +α -900 ) Sin ( β +α )
or GB = m Sin ( β +α -900 ) / Sin ( β+ α ) - - - - - - - - ( 4)
GE m
From triangle AGE, =
Sin ( 90 0−α+i ) Sin ( α−i )
Sin ( 90 0−α+i )
or GE = m - - - -- - - -- -- (5 )
Sin ( α−i )

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Substituting the values of m, GB and GE from Eqs. (c), (d) and (e) in Eq. (b),

W=
1 Η ( β+ α )
2 Sin β
. r ×
[m
Sin ( β+ α -90 0 )
Sin ( β+ α )
+ m
Sin ( 900 −α +i )
Sin ( α −i ) ]
[
Sin ( β+ α −900 ) Sin ( 90 0−α +i )
]
2 2
Η rSin ( β +α )
1
or W = +
2 Sin β Sin β + α Sin ( α −i )
Substituting the above value of W in Eq ( d ).
Η 2 rSin ( β +α )2 Sin ( α −φ ' )
Pa=1 2 ×
Sin β Sin ( 1800 −β−α +φ ' )

¿
[ Sin ( β +α −90 0 ) Sin ( 900 −α +i )
Sin ( β +α )
+
Sin ( α−i ) ]
The active pressure force Pa will be a maximum when the failure plane makes an
∂ Pa
=0
angle α with the horizontal such that ∂ α

According to Arora (2010), Muller Breslau gave the solution, which is quite
complicated. The maximum value of Pa thus obtained is Coulomb’s active force,
given by

1
Pa= Ka rH 2
2 --------- (6)

Coulomb's active earth

Where Ka =
Pressure coefficient, given by

Sin 2 ( β+φ' )
Ka= - - - - - - - - - - (7 )

[√ ]
2
Sin ( φ '+α ) Sin ( φ '−i )
Sin 2 ( β−α ) 1+
Sin ( β−α ) Sin ( β +i )

The line of action of Pa will be at a height of H/3 above the base of the wall
and it will be inclined at an angle δ to the normal drawn to the back of the wall.

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Example 1

Determine the coulomb active force on the retaining wall shown in fig. E-1.
r=17.5KN/m2.

Fig. E – 1.

Solution
– from Eqn. 7,

Sin 2 ( 75 0 +30 0 )
Ka=

[ √ ]
2
2 Sin ( φ '+ α ) Sin ( φ '−i )
Sin ( β−α ) 1+
Sin ( β−α ) Sin ( β−i )
Sin 2 ( 75 0 +30 0 )
or Ka=

[√
Sin 2 750 0 Sin ( 750 −200 ) 1+

0. 933
Sin ( 300 +20 0 ) Sin ( 300 −150 )
Sin ( 75 0 −200 ) Sin ( 75 0−15 0 ) ]
or Ka=

[ √ ]
2
0 . 766×0. 259
0. 933×0 .819 1+
0 . 819×1. 0
¿ 0 . 548

From Eqn .(6 )Pa=12 K a rH 2

1
or Pa= ×0 .548×17 . 5×( 5 )2 =119. 9 KN
2

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 This will act at a height of 5/3 on and inclined at 20 0 to normal in the
direction shown. It should be noted that the direction of Pa is equal and opposite to
that on the wedge, as discussed earlier.

TRIAL WEDGE METHOD AND COULOMB’S PASSIVE EARTH

PRESSURE FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS

Example 2

Determine the active thrust on the retaining wall shown in fig. E-2. The backfill is
cohesionless (Φ’=300, r=19KN/m3, δ=200).

Solution

The method of trial wedges is used. Several trial planes such as B-1, B-2, B-3, and
B-4 are chosen. The sliding wedge is in equilibrium under the three forces W, R
and Pa.

Fig. E – 2.

(a) (b)

The weights of the wedges are computed as given below.

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Wedge AB1 - W 1= (6× )×19 . 0= 171. 0 KN
3
3

W 2 =( 6 x 6 3 )×19 . 0=342 . 0 KN
Wedge AB2 -

W 3 =1 2 ×2×9×19 . 0+342=684 KN
Wedge AB3 -

From fig. E-2, the maximum thrust is given by Pa=178.5KN

Assignment

1. Determine the active pressure and passive pressure, using Coulomb’s theory
on the wall shown below (fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

2. A retaining
cohesionless soil (r=19KN/m3, Φ’=300). Determine the thrust on the wall.

FOUNDATIONS

Definitions

Emitt and Gorse (2005) describes foundations of a building as that part of

walls, piers and columns indirect contact with, and transmitting loads to the
ground. According to them, the building foundation is sometimes referred to as
artificial foundation, and the ground on which it bears as the natural foundation.

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Oyenuga (2008) defines foundations as horizontal or vertical members supporting
the entire structure and transmitting the loads to the soil below. They are
substructures supporting the super-structures of columns, beams, walls, slabs and
roofs.

Functional Requirements

Chudley and Greeno (2001) states that the function of any foundation is to
safety sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the
building. Similarly Emitt and Gorse (2005) have stated that the primary functional
of requirement of a foundation is strength and stability. Foundations must be
designed to transmit all building loads (dead, imposed and wind) safely to the
ground without causing deflection or deformation of the building or movement of
the ground that would impair the stability of the building and or neighbouring
structures, and should be able to resist any movement of the subsoil.

As the building is erected the load placed on the foundation increase and the
soil is compressed. As the subsoil beneath the foundation is compressed it reacts
by exerting an upward pressure to resist foundation loading. However, if the
foundation load exceeds maximum passive pressure of ground (i.e. bearing
capacity) a downward movement of the foundation could occur. This therefore
causes inevitable settlement of a building on a soil foundation. The foundations
threild therefore be designed so that any settlement is both limited and uniform
under the whole building. This settlement should however be limited to avoid
damage to service pipes and drains connected to the building.

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 Remedy is to increase plan size of foundation to reduce the load per unit
area or alternatively reduce the loadings being earned by the foundations.

Classification of Foundations

Foundations can generally be classified as shallow foundations or deep

foundations. The choice between shallow or deep foundations, according to
Oyenuga (2008) should be effected through examinations of the following
elements.

(a) The magnitude of the transmitted loads from the superstructure.

(b) Nature of soil.
(c) The economic aspects of the elements of the foundation work, and
(d) Problems concerning foundation construction.

Nature of soil (copy Emitt & Gorse (2005 P. 37-44 & P. 44-70 for foundation
types)

Types of Foundations

Foundations are classified into shallow and deep foundations.

A shallow foundation, according to Terzaghi, cited in Arora (2010), is one

whose width is greater than its depth (i.e. Df /B≤1 . Arora (2010, P. 630) further
states that shallow foundations are located just below the lowest part of the wall or
a column which they support. Foundation or footings are structural members, made
of brickwork, masonry or concrete, that are used to transmit the load of the wall or
column such that the load is distributed over a large area.

Arora (2010, P. 671) also states that deep foundations are used when surface
soil is unsuitable for shallow foundation, and a firm stratum is so deep that it
cannot be reached economically by shallow foundations. Deep foundations are

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therefore required to transfer the loads to deeper strata when the soil at or near the
ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure. A deep foundation is
generally more expensive than shallow foundation. It should be adopted only when
a shallow foundation is not feasible.

Shallow Foundations

These include;

a. Strip foundation (wide and deep strip)

b. Pad foundation
c. Raff foundation (slab, slab and beam and cellular)
d. Strap foundation

Deep Foundations

These includes;

a. Pile foundation
b. Piers foundation Arora (2010)
c. Caisson foundation
d. Displacement foundation
e. Diaphragm walls Oyenuga
(2008)

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