Semiconductors

There are three types of materials. Conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Semiconductor
are those materials whose conductivity lies between that of coductor and insulator Most of the
electronic devices are based on semiconductor. At absolute zero (0°K) temperature, the
semiconductor behave as insulators. As temperature increases, the conductivity increases
Semiconductor devices have a small size and their cost is less. These are operated with a low
voltage. They consumes very small amount of power.

Atom
The smallest individual particle of an element is known as an atom.
An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electron, Protons and neutrons are present in the
nucleus. A proton has positive charge and a neutron is electrically neutral. Therefore, the nucleus
has a positive charge and it attracts the electrons. The number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons. As electrons have negative charge, it balances the nuclear attraction. The
atom is electrically neutral. The atomic number is the number of protons.

The electrons are arranged in the orbits or shells. An orbit can contains a maximum 2𝑛
electrons, where n is the number of orbit. However the outermost orbit cannot accommodate
more than eight electrons.
Atomic structure

Most commonly used semiconductors are germanium and silicon. Atomic structure of
germanium and silicon atom is as shown in figure.
In a germanium atom, the nucleus contains 32 protons and 41 neutrons. Atomic number of
germanium atom is [Link] are 2,8,18 and 4 electrons in the first, second, third and fourth orbit

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni
respectively as shown in fig.
The atomic number of silicon is 14. It consists of 14 protons and 14 neutrons. There are 2, 8 and
4 electrons in the first, second and third orbit respectively. The electrons present in the outermost
orbit are called as valence electrons. Therefore in Germany and silicon atom there are four
valence electrons.

Energy bands:-

When atoms combine to form a solid, the orbit of an electron is affected by the charges of many
adjacent atoms. All electron travelling in first orbits have different energy levels. Since there are
billions of first-orbit electrons, the slightly different energy levels form a band Similarly, second
orbit electronics and third orbit electrons forms second band and third band

In silicon(Si), there are 2,8 and 4 electrons in first ,second and third orbit respectively
respectively. Third energy band is called valence band
As shown in figure first three bands are filled or saturated bands. Electrons in these bands cannot
move easily because there are no empty orbits beyond the valence band is the conduction band.
There is an energy gap (EG) between valence band and the conduction band. An electron can be
lifted from valence band to the conduction band by giving some energy, in the form of heat, light
etc.
The forbidden energy gap EG for silicon is 1.12 eV, for germanium Ge it is 0.72 eV (electron-
volt is unit of energy, 1eV =1.6 x 10-19J)
At absolute zero temperature, the conduction band is empty And therefore there is no current. If
valence electron is lifted into the conduction band, it become free electron. A free electron can
move from one atom to the next and provide conduction.

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni
Comparison

Types of Semiconductors

There are two types of Semiconductors

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni
1) Intrinsic Semiconductors: These are pure semiconductor. Crystal structure _ When
germanium or silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they arrange them in an orderly pattern
called a crystal. Ge and Si are tetravalent, i.e there are four valence electrons. For stable atom
eight valence electrons are necessary By sharing one electron each with neighbouring four
atoms, central atom gets eight electrons in its valence orbit. Therefore it becomes stable. The
crystal structure is as shown in fig

Such pure form of germanium or silicon is called intrinsic semiconductor.

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni
Energy band
The forces that hold the atoms together are called covalent bond.
An intrinsic semiconductor, behaves as an insulator at absolute zero (0°K) temperature.
If the temperature is increased beyond 0°K, the heat energy break some covalent bonds. Some
valence electrons go from valence band to conduction band and becomes free electrons .The
energy required for this purpose is equal to forbidden energy gap. (EG). The value of forbidden
energy gap is 1.12 electron volt for silicon and 0.72 electron volt for germanium. When electrons
goes from valence band to conduction band, a hole is created in valence band The number of
holes and electrons are always remains same in intrinsic semiconductor .The conduction is
provided by free electrons in conduction and and by holes in valence band .Energy band
diagram is as shown in figure.

Extrinsic semiconductors:-
In an intrinsic semiconductor, there are not enough free electrons and holes to produce sufficient
current. The Process of adding impurity atoms to a crystal to increase either the number free
electrons or holes is called doping.
When a crystal of intrinsic conductor has been doped, it is called an extrinsic Semiconductor

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors (1) p-type semiconductor and (2) n-type
semiconductor

1. p- type semiconductor:

There are four valence electrons in germanium and silicon. Therefore, they are tetravalent.
Impurity of a trivalent material is added to a pure semiconductor. Then this type of
semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor. Some of trivalent impurities are Boron (B),
aluminium (Al) , indium (ln), gallium (Ga) .Only one or two impunity atoms are added
to 10/6 Si or Ge.
Crystal structure
Crystal structure of P- type semiconductor is as shown in fig.

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni
In a trivalent material, three electrons are present in the outer most orbit. They form three
covalent bonds. Absence of electron in fourth bond is called a hole. By controlling the amount of
impurity added, the number holes can be controlled.
Conductivity of p-type semiconductor and energy band diagram-

Conductivity is mainly due to holes. With increase of temperature, some electron-hole pairs are
generated. In p type semiconductor holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority
charge carriers.
In p-type hole may accept an electron during recombination Therefore, trivalent impurity atoms
are known as acceptor atoms
2. N- type semiconductor:
Crystal structure
Crystal structure of N- type semiconductor is as shown in fig.

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni
If impurities of pentavalent material are added to pure semiconductor it becomes n-type
semiconductor. Some of the pentavalent material are Arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), phosphorus
(P)

In a pentavalent material, five electrons are present in the outermost orbit .They form four
covalent bond Remaining electron goes to the conduction band and becomes free electron

Conductivity and energy band diagram-

The conductivity in n type semiconductor is mainly due to electrons.

Pentavalent atoms are called donor atoms because they produceconduction-band (free) electrons.

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Prof. Mrs. Rekha P Kulkarni