ELECTRONICS Mass number (Atomic Weight) (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons in

the nucleus of an atom (i.e. A = P + N).

LEVEL 6
The structure of an atom consists of nucleus which is positively charged
MODULE 1 and orbits (energy levels) that comprises of electrons.
UNIT 1: SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

Electronics is the branch of engineering which deals with current

conduction through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor.

Electronic device is that in which current flows through a vacuum or gas or

semiconductor. Some applications of electronics

 Rectification (is the process of converting ac power to dc power)

 Amplification (is the process of raising the strength of a weak signal)
 Control of devices such as motors Nucleus is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons.
 Generation of ac power from dc power (alternators) Orbit is the region outside the nucleus of an atom through which electrons
 Conversion of light into electricity (photo-electricity) revolve
 Conversion of electricity into light
Proton is a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic Theory while the neutron has the same mass as the proton, but has no charge.

Atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. Electrons are negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus
in different orbits or paths of an atom.
Element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical means. The number and arrangement of electrons in any orbit is determined by the
following rules:
Compound is a substance formed by chemically combining two or more
elements together. (i) The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 𝟐𝒏𝟐 where n is the number
of the orbit.
Periodic table is a tabular array of the chemical elements organized by
For example,
atomic number.
First orbit contains 2 × 12 = 2 electrons
Atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of Second orbit contains 2 × 22 = 8 electrons Third orbit contains 2 × 32 = 18
an atom of that element. electrons.

NB: The number of protons of an atom equals the number of electrons of

(ii) The last orbit cannot have more than 8 electrons.
the neutral atom. (iii) The last but one orbit cannot have more than 18 electrons.

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 Draw a structure of the atoms of the following elements Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Sodium, and Copper and show the composition of the nucleus and orbits of
each atom.

Classification of Materials

The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence

electrons.

The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons i.e. the maximum
number of valence electrons can be 8.

The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus are
known as free electrons.

On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into

conductors, insulators and semi-conductors. Valence and Conduction Bands

(i) A conductor is a substance which has a large number of free electrons and Valence band is the band of energy occupied by the valence electrons. It is
conducts electric current. E.g. Most metals such as Copper, Aluminium, and usually the highest occupied band.
Iron. Usually, they have less than 4 valence electrons. Conduction band is the next higher permitted energy band after the valence
band. It may be empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band, the
(ii) An insulator is a substance which has practically no free electrons at
electrons move freely and that’s why it is called conduction band.
ordinary temperature and do not conduct any electric current. E.g. Rubber,
plastic, sulphur, neon, etc. Usually, they have more than 4 valence Forbidden energy gap is the gap between the valence band and the
electrons. conduction band.
(iii) A semiconductor is a substance which has very few free electrons at room
temperature and they practically don’t conduct current at room temperature. If a valance electron happens to absorb enough energy (for example from
E.g. Silicon, Germanium, and Carbon. Usually, they have 4 valence heat energy or light), it jumps across the forbidden energy gap and enters
electrons. the conduction band (figure below) leaving a hole in the valence band. The
hole is filled by an electron from an adjacent atom in the valence band.

Energy Bands in Solids

When energy level of same or slightly different energies in an element are
combined, they form an energy band. For simplicity, the electrons in each
energy band are assumed to have the same amount of energy.

For example, consider a single lithium atom as shown in the figure (a)
below and a lithium metal with 100 lithium atoms as shown in figure (b)
below.

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 In terms of energy bands, insulators can be defined as those materials which
have an empty conduction band and a filled valence band with a very wide
energy gap (of the order of several eV) separating the two.

In terms of energy bands, it means that insulators have:

 A full valence band Types of Semiconductors There

 An empty conduction band are two types of semiconductors:
 A large energy gap (of several eV) between them
 Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
 At ordinary temperatures, the probability of electrons from full valence
band gaining sufficient energy so as to surmount energy gap and thus  Extrinsic or impure semiconductors
become available for conduction in the conduction band, is low. Intrinsic Semiconductor
Figure (a) below shows the energy band diagram of an insulator, figure (b) An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor
shows an energy band for conductors, and figure (c) shows the energy band material in its extremely pure form. Examples of such semiconductors are:
for semi-conductors. As shown in figure (b), conductors don’t have a pure germanium and silicon.
forbidden gap and that the valence band and the conduction band overlaps
each other thus making electrons to flow freely from the valence band to the The number of thermally-generated charge carriers per unit volume (i.e.
conduction band.
intrinsic carrier density) is given by: where N is
In terms of energy bands, it means that electrical conductors are those which constant for a given semiconductor, Eg is the band gap energy in joules, k is
have overlapping valence and conduction bands. Boltzmann’s constant and T is the temperature in ºK.
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials
which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence
band with a very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the
two.

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 The trivalent doping atoms are known as acceptor atoms because it accepts
one electron from the pure germanium atom.

Covalent Bond

This is a type of bond that is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms.

Each atom in this type of bond contributes equal number of electrons for
sharing. For example, germanium atom; which has 4 valence electrons, can
bond covalently to 4 other germanium atoms as shown in figure (i) and (ii)
below. As seen in the figure below, the middle germanium atom is
surrounded by 4 other germanium atoms giving a total of 8 electrons in its
Extrinsic Semiconductor or Impure Semiconductor outermost energy level (orbit). A similar observation is made on the other
germanium atoms as they bond covalently to other 3 germanium atoms.
Extrinsic semiconductors are those semiconductors which some impurity or
doping agent has been added to it to improve its conductivity. During doping, the middle germanium atom will be replaced by a doping
agent (pentavalent or trivalent) to form an extrinsic semiconductor.
Doping is the addition of an impurity to a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor to
improve its electrical conductivity.

Types of extrinsic semiconductors

Depending on the doping agent, extrinsic semiconductors are sub-divided

into two classes:

 N-type semiconductors
 P-type semiconductors
Doping agents

The usual doping agents are:

 Pentavalent atoms: - these atoms have five valence electrons. E.g. arsenic,
phosphorus, antinomy, etc.
 Trivalent atoms: - these atoms have three valence electrons. E.g. gallium,
indium, aluminium, boron, etc.
N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
The pentavalent doping atoms are known as donor atoms because it
donates or contributes one electron to the conduction band of pure This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent impurity like
germanium atom. arsenic (As) is added to pure germanium crystal. Each arsenic atom forms
covalent bonds with the surrounding four germanium atoms with the help of
four of its five electrons. The fifth electron is free. Since several arsenic

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(As) atoms are added, several free electrons are produces and that helps in
electrical conductivity. Due to the presence of the free electrons (negatively
charged), the resulting semiconductor is of n-type.

NB: Silicon (Si) can be used in the place of Germanium (Ge) to produce the
same type of extrinsic semiconductor.

Majority and Minority Charge carriers

In p-type semiconductors, holes (which are positively charged) are the

majority charge carriers while electrons (negatively charged) are the
minority charge carriers.

In n-type semiconductor, electrons (negatively charged) are the majority

charge carriers while holes (positively charged) are the minority charge
P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
carriers.
This type of semiconductor is obtained when a trivalent impurity like
The figure below shown the minority and majority charge carriers in both p-
Gallium (Ga) is added to pure germanium crystal. In this case, the three
type and n-type semiconductors.
valence electrons of Gallium atom form covalent bonds with four
surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives
rise to a hole as shown in figure below. Since several Gallium atoms are
bonded with germanium atoms, several holes will be produced. Due to the
presence of the free holes (positively charged), the resulting semiconductor
is of p-type.

NB: Silicon (Si) can be used in the place of Germanium (Ge) to produce the
same type of extrinsic semiconductor.

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 P-N Junction

It is possible to manufacture a single piece of a semiconductor material half

of which is doped by P-type impurity and the other half by N-type impurity
as shown in the figure below. The plane dividing the two zones is called
junction.

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor,

the contact surface is called pn junction.
Formation of Depletion Layer

Initially, when both the P- and N-type materials are joined together (without
any external voltage applied) the excess electrons in the N-type and excess
holes in the P-type will get attracted to each other and gets recombined
where the formation of fixed ions (Donor ion and Acceptor ion) takes place
as shown in below picture. These fixed ions resists the flow of electrons or
holes through it which now acts as a barrier in between the two materials
(formation of barrier means the fixed ions diffuses into P and N regions).
Formation of pn junction The barrier which is now formed is called as Depletion region/layer.

One common method of making pn junction is called alloying.

In this method, a small block of indium (trivalent impurity) is placed on an

n-type germanium slab as shown in figure (i). The system is then heated to a
temperature of about 500ºC. The indium and some of the germanium melt
to form a small puddle of molten germanium-indium mixture as shown in
figure (ii). The temperature is then lowered and puddle begins to solidify.
The addition of indium overcomes the excess of electrons in the n-type
germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type region. As the process
goes on, the remaining molten mixture becomes increasingly rich in indium.
When all germanium has been re-deposited, the remaining material appears
as indium button which is frozen on to the outer surface of the crystallized
portion as shown in figure (iii). This button serves as a suitable base for
soldering on leads.

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 In this type of connected, the electrons will be attracted to the positive terminal of
the battery while the holes will be attracted to the negative terminal of the battery.
For this reason, the depletion layer increases and no current will flow through it. P-
Forward Biased P-N Junction
N Junction Diode
In this connection, the p-region of the semiconductor is connected to a positive
It is a two-terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either in Ge or Si
terminal of a battery while the n-region of the semiconductor is connected to the
crystal. Its circuit symbol is shown in figure (b) below. The P-type region is
negative terminal of the battery.
referred to as anode and while the N-type region is referred to as the cathode.

In figure (b) below, arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow
when forward-biased. It is the same direction in which hole current flow takes
place.

One of the commercial pn-junction diodes is also shown in the figure below.

In this type of connected, the electrons will be attracted to the side of holes while
the holes moves to the side of electrons. For this reason, the depletion layer
decreases and electric current starts to flow through the p-n junction.

Reverse Biased P-N Junction A PN-junction diode allows current to flow in one direction (during forward bias)
and block current when in reverse bias.
In this connection, the n-region of the semiconductor is connected to a positive
terminal of a battery while the p-region of the semiconductor is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.

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V/I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode There are two types of electronic components; active electronic component, and
passive electronic component.
It is a graph showing the current (usually on the y-axis) and voltage (usually on the
x-axis) through a diode in both forward and reverse bias. The figure below shows Active electronic components are those that rely on an external power source to
the VI characteristics of a pn junction diode. function.
Examples are transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), diodes, MOSFETs,
JFETs, etc.

Passive electronic components are components that don’t need an external power
source to function. Examples are resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, etc.

In this unit, we will discuss the construction, operation, characteristics, and

applications of some of these electronic components.

Resistors

Resistors are electronic components that are used to resist the flow of electric
current.
As shown in the figure above, when a diode is in the forward bias, the voltage
The unit or resistance is the Ohm, Ω and resistor values may be seen quoted in
barrier of 0.3V (for Ge) or 0.7V (for Si) must be overcome before the diode can
terms of Ohms - Ω, thousands of Ohms or kilohms - kΩ and millions of Ohms,
allow electric current to flow through it. However, there is still some little forward
megohms, MΩ. When written on circuits values like 10k may be seen meaning 10
leakage current that can flow when the voltage is less than 0.3V or 0.7V.
kilohm, or 10 kΩ. The Omega sign is often omitted and the decimal point replaced
Similarly, when the diode is in reverse bias, current is blocked from flowing until by the multipler: e.g. 1R5 would be 1.5 Ohms, 100R is 100Ω, 4k7 is 4.7 kΩ, 2M2
when the applied voltage become equal or greater than the reverse breakdown is 2.2MΩ and so forth.
voltage. However, there is still some reverse leakage current that flows through the
The general circuit symbol of a resistor is as shown in the figure below
diode in reverse bias even when the applied voltage is below the reverse breakdown
voltage.

Behold the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode allows very high amount of reverse
current to flow that damages the diode. Therefore, care should be taken when Or
connecting a diode in the reverse bias.

UNIT 2: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS The figure below shows a commercial fixed resistor

Some of the highly used electronic components today are resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, transistors, triacs, thyristors (SCR), photo conductive cells, photo
diodes, light emitting diodes, liquid crystal display (LCD), integrated circuits (IC),
etc.

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 Resistor Construction

Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. Most common, modern

resistors are made out of either a carbon, metal, or metal-oxide film. In these
resistors, a thin film of conductive (though still resistive) material is wrapped in a
helix around and covered by an insulating material. Metallic connection leads are Types of fixed resistors
then attached to the end caps of the resistor as shown below.
There are various types of fixed resistors

Metal oxide film or Metal film resistors: - uses a metal film or metal oxide to
surround the ceramic rod. They are used for low power levels. used for medium
power applications.

Types of Resistors

There are two major types of resistors Carbon film resistors: - uses a carbon film to surround the ceramic rod. They are
used for low power levels.
 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors
Fixed resistors are highly used in most electrical and electronic equipment than the
variable resistors.

Fixed resistors offer a fixed value of resistance to the flow of current. Usually, the Wire wound resistors: - they consists of a high resistance wire wound on a ceramic
resistance value is set by the manufacturer. former. They are used for high power applications.
Variable resistors on the other hand have a variable resistance value. These
resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps onto the main
resistor element. This gives three connections to the component: two connected to
the fixed element, and the third is the slider. In this way the component acts as a
variable potential divider if all three connections are used. Variable resistors and
potentiometers are widely used for all forms of control; everything from volume
controls on radios and sliders in audio mixers to a host of areas where a variable
resistance is required.

The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a variable resistor

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Types of variable resistors

Potentiometers: - three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that

forms an adjustable voltage divider.

The figure below shows the various types of potentiometers.

Thermistor: - is a type of variable resistor whose resistance value varies with

temperature

Applications of resistors
Light depended resistor (LDR): - these are resistors whose resistance value
depends on light intensity.  Resistors are used in high frequency instrument.
 Resistor is used in power control circuit.
 It is used in DC power supplies.
 Resistors are used in filter circuit networks.
 It is used in wave generators.
 Resistors are used in transmitters, modulators and demodulators.
 It is used in medical instrument.
 It is used in instrumentation applications.
 Resistor is used in voltage regulators.
 It is used in feedback amplifiers.
Rheostat: - is a variable resistor which is used to control current.
Capacitors

Capacitors are the most widely used electronic components after resistors. We find
capacitors in televisions, computers, and all electronic circuits.

A capacitor is an electronic device that stores electric charge or electricity when

voltage is applied and releases stored electric charge whenever required. Capacitor
acts as a small battery that charges and discharges rapidly.

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Capacitance is the capacitors ability (capacity) to store an electrical charge on its moving from the negative terminal of the battery through the conductive wire.
plates. When these electrons reach the right side plate of the capacitor, they experience a
high resistance from dielectric material. As a result, a large number of electrons
Standard Units of Capacitance build up on the right side plate of the capacitor. On the other hand, the electrons on
the left side plate experience a strong attractive force from the positive terminal of
Microfarad (μF) the battery leaving behind concentration of holes on the left plate. This constitutes a
potential difference between the two plates. Also, an electric field develops
between the two plates through the dielectric material as shown in the figure below.
Nanofarad This way, the capacitor is said to be charged.
Picofarad

Construction of a capacitor

A capacitor is made of two electrically conductive plates placed close to each other,
but they do not touch each other. These conductive plates are normally made of
materials such as aluminum, brass, or copper. The conductive plates of a capacitor
is separated by a small distance. The empty space between these plates is filled with
a dielectric material such as air, vacuum, glass, liquid, or solid (such as paper) as
shown in the figure below.

Discharging a capacitor

If the external voltage source connected to the capacitor is removed, the capacitor
remains charged. However, when the capacitor is connected to an electric device
such as an electric bulb through a conductive wire, the electrons trapped on the
right side plate starts flowing through the circuit. We know that electric current is
the flow of charge carriers (free electrons). Therefore, when the free electrons or
electric current reaches the light bulb, it glows with high intensity. The electrons
that started flowing from the right side plate through the conductive wire finally
reach the left side plate and fill the holes of the left side plate. As a result, the
Working of a capacitor Charging a capacitor charge on the left side plate and right side plate starts decreasing. This decreases the
intensity of electric bulb, because the electric current flowing through the electric
When no voltage is applied to the capacitor, the total number of electrons and bulb decreases. Finally, the charge stored on the left plate and the right plate is
protons in the each plate of the capacitor are equal thus making them electrically completely released. As a result, the bulb will turn off, because no electric current
neutral. When voltage is applied to the capacitor in such a way that, the positive flows through the bulb. Thus, the charge stored on the left plate and right plate of
terminal of the battery is connected to the left side plate of the capacitor and the the capacitor is discharged.
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the right side plate of the capacitor,
the charging of capacitor takes place. In this case, a large number of electrons start
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 Plastic capacitor or plastic film capacitor: - uses plastic film as dielectric material
to store charge.

The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a capacitor

Ceramic capacitor: - uses ceramic material as dielectric to store charge. They are
the most widely used capacitors in the electronic circuits. These capacitors are used
Types of capacitors when large charge storage and small physical size is required.

Capacitors are mainly grouped into

 Fixed capacitors
 Variable capacitors
Fixed capacitor is a type of capacitor which provides fixed amount of capacitance.
They are classified into different types based on the dielectric material used to
construct them. The different types of fixed capacitors are:

Paper capacitor: - uses paper as the dielectric material to store charge. Mica capacitor: - they are used in the applications where high accuracy and low
capacitance change over the time is desired. These capacitors can work efficiently
at high frequencies.

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 Applications if capacitors

 Energy storage
 Pulsed power and weapons
 Power conditioning
 Power factor correction

 Suppression and coupling

 Sensing
Electrolytic capacitor: - is a type of capacitor which uses electrolyte as one of its  Oscillators
electrodes to achieve large capacitance. Electrolytic capacitors are mainly used
Inductors
when high charge storage in small volume is required.
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to
store energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it.

Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy.

The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and when we measure magnetic circuits it is
equivalent to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.

The general circuit symbol of an inductor is shown in the figure below

Variable capacitors are those whose capacitance can be varied. There are two most
common types of such capacitors named as a trimmer and rotor-stator capacitors.

Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as follows:

Iron Core Inductor the core of this type of inductor is made of iron as shown in the
figure below.

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 Applications of inductors

 Used in tuning circuits

 Used to store energy in a device
 Used in induction motors
 Used in transformers
 Used in filters
 Used in power supply circuits as chokes (to choke ac current and allow only dc
Air Core Inductor refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other nonmagnetic current to pass)
forms, as well as those that have only air inside the windings as shown below.  Used in inductive sensors such as proximity sensors

Diodes

A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts

current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified voltage level).

Iron Powder Inductor are those that are made of iron oxide core The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a diode and some of the available
diodes in the market.

Ferrite Core Inductor uses ferrite materials as core.

The construction of a p-n junction diode is similar to the construction of a p-n

junction explained in the previous topic.

Working of a diode

A P-N junction diode is one-way device offering low resistance when forward-
biased and behaving almost as an insulator when reverse-biased. Hence, such
diodes are mostly used as rectifiers i.e. for converting alternating current (ac) into
direct current (dc).

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A diode operates in two modes depending on its biasing condition electrons and holes cannot cross the opposite sides and constitute the electric
current from the battery to flow through the diode. In this mode, the diode is said to
Forward bias diode be blocking the flow of current.

When the anode of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and
the cathode to the negative terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be forward
bias. Due to forward bias, majority charge carriers in both regions gets repelled.
That is, the holes in the P-type region gets repelled by the positive charge of the
battery while electrons in the N-type region gets repelled by the negative charges of
the battery. This decreases the width of the depletion layer and eventually destroys
it if the applied voltage is high enough to overcome the barrier voltage. The result
is that the electrons and holes can now cross the opposite sides and constitute the
electric current from the battery to flow through the diode from the P-type to the N-
type region and back to the battery as shown in the figure below.

In this mode, the diode works like an open switch.

V/I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode

It is a graph showing the current (usually on the y-axis) and voltage (usually on the
x-axis) through a diode in both forward and reverse bias. The figure below shows
the VI characteristics of a pn junction diode.

In this mode, the diode works like a closed switch.

Reverse bias diode

When the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of a battery and
the cathode to the positive terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be reverse
bias. Due to reverse bias, majority charge carriers in both regions gets attracted to As shown in the figure above, when a diode is in the forward bias, the voltage
the side of the battery terminals they are connected. That is, the holes in the P-type barrier of 0.3V (for Ge) or 0.7V (for Si) must be overcome before the diode can
region gets attracted by the negative charge of the battery while electrons in the N- allow electric current to flow through it. However, there is still some little forward
type region gets attracted by the positive charges of the battery. This increases the leakage current that can flow when the voltage is less than 0.3V or 0.7V.
width of the depletion layer thus increasing the barrier voltage. The result is that the
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Similarly, when the diode is in reverse bias, current is blocked from flowing until P-N junction diodes or rectifier dioded
when the applied voltage become equal or greater than the reverse breakdown
voltage. However, there is still some reverse leakage current that flows through the This is the basic diode formed with the interaction of p-type and n-type materials.
diode in reverse bias even when the applied voltage is below the reverse breakdown They are used mainly for rectification purposes.
voltage.
The figure below shows the diode and its circuit symbol.
Behold the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode allows very high amount of reverse
current to flow that damages the diode. Therefore, care should be taken when
connecting a diode in the reverse bias.

Forward Characteristic

When the diode is forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero,
hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the
external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier voltage VB whose value is
0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is neutralized, current through the Zener diodes
diode increases rapidly with increasing applied battery voltage. It is found that as It is the diode designed in such a way that it can operate in the reverse bias mode.
little a voltage as 1.0 V produces a forward current of about 50 mA. A burnout is
likely to occur if forward voltage is increased beyond a certain safe limit. The figure below shows a zener diode and its circuit symbol.

Reverse Characteristic

When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carriers are blocked and only a small
current (due to minority carriers) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage
is increased from zero, the reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or
saturation value Io which is also known as leakage current. It is of the order of
Nano-amperes (nA) for Si and microamperes (µA) for Ge. The value of I o (or Is ) is
independent of the applied reverse voltage but depends on (a) temperature, (b) Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
degree of doping and (c) physical size of the junction. As seen from the V/I This is a type of diode that emits light when a forward current passes through it.
characteristic curve above, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called
break-down voltage VBR (or Zener voltage Vz), the leakage current suddenly and
sharply increases, the curve indicating zero resistance at this point. Any further
increase in voltage is likely to produce burnout unless protected by a current-
limiting resistor.

When P-N junction diodes are employed primarily because of this breakdown
property as voltage regulators, they are called Zener diodes.

Types of diode

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Schottky diodes

These type of diodes are used for faster switching operations

Photo diode

This is the type of diode that allows current to flow through it when light is shining
on it and blocks the current when in the dark.

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 Applications of diodes

 Rectifiers
 Clipper Circuits
 Clamping Circuits
 Reverse Current Protection Circuits
 In Logic Gates
 Voltage Multipliers
 As a Switch
 Source isolation
 As voltage reference
 As a Light Source
 As a Light Sensor
Laser diode (LD)  A solar cell or Photo-Voltaic cell
 Protection against Surges
This is type of diode similar to the LED but it emits coherent light of high intensity.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light
when energized.

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 Construction of LED response to a sufficient forward current. The amount of power output translated
into light is directly proportional to the forward current as shown in figure (b). It is
Broadly speaking, the LED structures can be divided into two categories: evident from this figure that greater the forward current, the greater the light
output.
1. Surface-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the
PN junction plane.

2. Edge-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the PN junction
plane

The figure below shows the construction of a surface-emitting LED. As seen from
this figure, an N-type layer is grown on a substrate and a P-type layer is deposited
on it by diffusion. Since carrier recombination takes place in the P-layer, it is kept
upper most. The metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of the P-
layer so as to allow more central surface area for the light to escape. LEDs are Applications of LED
manufactured with domed lenses in order to lessen the reabsorption problem. A
metal (gold) film is applied to the bottom of the substrate for reflecting as much  LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems;
light as possible to the surface of the device and also to provide cathode  Used for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray tubes
connection. LEDs are always encased in order to protect their delicate wires. (CRT);
 Used in image sensing circuits used for ‘picturephone’;
 Used in the field of optical fibre communication systems
 Used in data links and remote controllers;
 Used in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and numbers)
or supplying input power to lasers or for entering information into optical
computer memories;  Used for numeric displays in hand-held or pocket
calculators

Liquid Crystals Display (LCD)

Working of LEDs
A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organic compound) which flows like a
The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon PN liquid at room temperature but whose molecular structure has some properties
junction diode. Typically the maximum forward voltage for LED is between 1.2 V normally associated with solids (examples of such compounds are: cholesteryl
and 3.2 V depending on the device. Reverse breakdown voltage for an LED is of nonanoate and p-azoxyanisole).
the order of 3 V to 10 V. For this reason, a current limiting resistor is connected in
series with the LED as shown in the figure (a) below. The LED emits light in

Page 19 of 43
Construction of LCD Applications of LCDs

As shown in figure (a), a liquid crystal ‘cell’ consists of a thin layer (about 10 µm) of  Field-effect LCDs are normally used in watches and portable instruments where
a liquid crystal sandwiched between two glass sheets with transparent electrodes source of energy is a prime consideration.
deposited on their inside faces. With both glass sheets transparent, the cell is  Thousands of tiny LCDs are used to form the picture elements (pixels) of the
known as transmittive type cell. When one glass is transparent and the other has screen in one type of B & W pocket TV receiver.
a reflective coating, the cell is called reflective type. The LCD does not produce any  Used in recent desk top LCD monitors.
illumination of its own. It, in fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it
 Used in note book computer display
from an external source for its visual effect.
 Used in cellular phone display
Working of LCD
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
The two types of display available are known as (i) field-effect display and (ii)
A bipolar junction transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching
dynamic scattering display. When field-effect display is energized, the energized either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.
areas of the LCD absorb the incident light and, hence give localized black display.
When dynamic scattering display is energized, the molecules of energized area of Types of BJTs
the display become turbulent and scatter light in all directions. Consequently, the
activated areas take on a frosted glass appearance resulting in a silver display. Of There are two types of transistors, namely; n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor
course, the unenergized areas remain translucent.
An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin
As shown in figure (b), a digit on an LCD has a segment appearance. For example, if section of ptype as shown in figure (i) while a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-
sections separated by a thin section of n-type as shown in figure (ii).
number 5 is required, the terminals 8, 2, 3, 6 and 5 would be energized so that
only these regions would be activated while the other areas would remain clear

The figure below shows a commercial transistor and its circuit symbol

Page 20 of 43
 (ii) Collector is thehe section on the other side that collects the charges. It is always
reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction with the base. In
figure (i), the collector (p-type) of pnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives
hole charges that flow in the output circuit. Similarly, in figure (ii), the collector (n-
type) of npn transistor has reverse bias and receives electrons.
(iii) Base is the middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and
collector. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for
the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides high
resistance in the collector circuit.

Some Facts about the Transistor

(i) The transistor has three regions; emitter, base and collector. The base is much
thinner than the emitter while collector is wider than both as shown in the figure
below. However, for the sake of convenience, it is customary to show emitter and
collector to be of equal size.
Naming of transistor terminals (ii) The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin
A transistor has three terminals/leads namely; emitter, base, and collector. so as to pass most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the collector. The
collector is moderately doped.
A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section
(iii) The transistor has two p-n junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction between
on one side is the emitter (E) and the section on the opposite side is the collector
emitter and base may be called emitter-base diode or simply the emitter diode. The
(C). The middle section is called the base (B) and forms two junctions between the
junction between the base and collector may be called collector-base diode or
emitter and collector.
simply collector diode.
(i) Emitter is the section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes). (iv) The emitter diode is always forward biased whereas collector diode is always
It is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large number of reverse biased.
majority charge carriers. In figure (i) below, the emitter (p-type) of pnp transistor is (v) The resistance of emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared to
forward biased and supplies hole charges to its junction with the base. Similarly, in collector diode (reverse biased). Therefore, forward bias applied to the emitter
figure (ii), the emitter (n-type) of npn transistor has a forward bias and supplies free diode is generally very small whereas reverse bias on the collector diode is much
electrons to its junction with the base. higher.

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 remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector
circuit.

Working of NPN transistor

The figure below shows an npn transistor with forward bias to emitter-base junction
and reverse bias to collector-base junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in
the n-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current I E. Figure (i) below shows the circuit symbol of an NPN transistor while figure (ii)
As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. shows the circuit symbol of a PNP transistor.
As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons (less than
5%) combine with holes to constitute base current IB. The remainder (more than
95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute collector current I C. In this
way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

Working of PNP transistor

The figure below shows the basic connection of a PNP transistor. The forward bias
causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the From the circuits shown above, it is evident that the emitter current is equal to the
emitter current IE. As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with sum of the base current and collector current.
the electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few holes (less
than 5%) combine with the electrons to constitute the base current I B. The 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
Page 22 of 43
 Transistor Connection Methods Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

There are three methods of connecting a transistor;

 Common base connection method

 Common emitter connection method
 Common collector connection method For silicon transistor, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉 while for germanium transistor, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.3𝑉
Common base connection
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop,
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and output
is taken from collector and base. Here, base of the transistor is common to both 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐵
input and output circuits and hence the name common base connection.

Example

1. In a common base connection, IE = 1mA, IC = 0.95mA. Calculate the value of IB and

the current amplification factor ∝.

Solution

Emitter Current amplification factor (α) is the ratio of output current to input 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
current. In a common base
1 × 10−3 = 9.5 × 10−3 + 𝐼𝐵

Thus 𝐼𝐵 = 1 × 10−3 − 9.5 × 10−4 = 5 × 10−5

At constant VCB

2. In a common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter

current is 1mA, determine the value of base current.

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 Solution

Common emitter
connection

In this circuit arrangement,

input is applied between base and emitter and output is
taken from collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the
3. For the common base circuit shown in the figure below, determine I C and VCB. transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
Assume the transistor to be of silicon (𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉). common emitter connection as shown in the figures below.

This is the highly used transistor biasing method because of its large current gain
and high voltage and power gains. It has a high input impedance too which is good
for amplification purposes.

Solution

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

Considering the input circuit,

thus,
Base current amplification factor (β) is the ratio of output current (IC) to the input
current (IB).

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From the equation

𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶

Substitute 𝐼𝐵 in equation (ii) to get

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

But 𝐼𝐸 from equation (i) is

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit (loop),

Substitute 𝐼𝐸 into equation (iii) to get 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Simplifies to Common collector connection

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector and output
is taken from emitter and collector. Here, collector of the transistor is common to
both input and output circuits and hence the name common collector connection
as shown in the figures below.

This is a rarely used transistor biasing method. Although it has high current gain, its
Assignment voltage gain is low (less than 1).
Show that

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 𝐼𝐶 =∝ 𝐼𝐸

Transistor Load line analysis

Load line is a line joining the saturation point to the cut-off point of a transistor.
Current amplification factor (𝛾) is the ratio of output current (IE) to the input
current (IB). Saturation point is the point when the transistor is fully on. At this point, the
transistor acts as a closed switch.

Cut-off point is the point when the transistor is fully off. At this point, the
transistor acts as an open switch.

Operating point (Q) is the point that gives the values of IC and VCE when no signal
is applied to the input circuit of the transistor.

From equation

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

→ 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶

Substitute 𝐼𝐵 in equation (i) to get

To get the cut-off and saturation points, we use the output circuit loop and apply
the Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

From equation (ii), make 𝐼𝐶 the subject and substitute it in equation (iii)

Page 26 of 43
Saturation point

At saturation, the transistor is fully closed (acts like a conductor/wire). Thus there
is no voltage drop across the transistor at this point, that is .

Thus equation (i) becomes

Cut-off point

At cut-off, the transistor is fully open (acts like an open circuit). Thus there is no Solution
current through the transistor at this point, that is .

Thus equation (i) becomes At saturation

The load line is thus drawn as shown in figure (ii) above. From the figure, point A is
the saturation-point while point B is the cut-off point.

To get the operating point, the value of is found using equation (i)
also. As seen in figure (ii) above, the operating points varies depending on the
base current . This is true because depends on . At cut-off point

Example
Operating point Q is, we find and
In the circuit diagram shown in the figure below, if VCC = 12V and RC = 6 kΩ, draw
the d.c. load line. What will be the Q point if zero signal base current is 20µA and β
= 50?

To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸, we substitute 𝐼𝐶 in the equation 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

12 = (1 × 10−3 × 6 × 103) + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 6𝑉
Page 27 of 43
 The operating point is thus 6V, 1mA.

The dc load line and the operating point Q are shown in the figure below

Transistor Biasing Methods

Circuit analysis
Biasing is the process of providing dc voltage which helps in the functioning of the
circuit.

There are four basic transistor biasing methods:

 Base resistor method

 Emitter bias method
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),
 Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
 Voltage-divider bias

Base resistor method

In this method, a high resistance RB (several hundred kΩ) is connected between

the base and +ve end of supply for npn transistor and between base and negative Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit (loop),
end of supply for pnp transistor as shown in the figure below.

Example

The figure below shows biasing with base resistor method.

Page 28 of 43
(i) Determine the collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE. Neglect small 9 = 1 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
baseemitter voltage. Given that β = 50.
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 9 − (1 × 10−3 × 2 × 103) = 7𝑉
(ii) If RB in this circuit is changed to 50 kΩ, find the new operating point
The operating point is 7V, 1mA

ii. To get the new operating point we repeat the above steps

𝐼𝐶 = 50 × 0.04 × 10−3 = 2𝑚𝐴

To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 we use the output circuit

Solution 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

i. Considering the input circuit loop 9 = 2 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 9 − (2 × 10−3 × 2 × 103) = 5𝑉

The new operating point is 5V, 2mA

Assignment

Draw the dc load line and show the two operating points for the above circuit

Emitter bias method

This circuit differs from base-bias circuit in two important respects. First, it uses
two separate dc voltage sources; one positive (+ VCC) and the other negative (–
To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 we use the output circuit VEE). Normally, the two supply voltages will be equal. For example, if VCC = + 20V
(dc), then VEE = – 20V (dc). Secondly, there is a resistor RE in the emitter circuit.
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Page 29 of 43
 But

Thus

Applying Kirchhoff’s law at the output circuit loop

But
Circuit analysis
Biasing with Collector Feedback Resistor
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop
In this method, one end of RB is
connected to the base and the other end to the collector as shown in the figure
below.

Thus . Substitute it in equation (i) to get

Circuit Analysis

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop

Page 30 of 43
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐸

Voltage Divider Bias Method 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶(𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸)

This is the most widely used method of providing biasing and stabilization to a Applications of bipolar junction transistors
transistor.
 Used as amplifiers
In this method, two resistances R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage
VCC and provide biasing. The emitter resistance RE provides stabilization.  Used as a switch
 Used in impedance marching circuits
The name ‘‘voltage divider’’ comes from the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2.
The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base emitter junction. This causes Silicon versus Germanium
the base current and hence collector current flow in the zero signal conditions.
Although both silicon and germanium are used in semiconductor devices.

Reasons why silicon is highly used semiconductor material compared to

germanium

 It has a low leakage current at room temperature

 It has low variation of leakage current with temperature
 It has a wide range of working temperature
 It has a high PIV (peak inverse voltage) ratings

Field Effect Transistors (FET)

FETs are voltage controlled devices unlike BJTs which are current controlled
devices.

Also, unlike BJTs whereby current conduction was by two types of charge carriers
Circuit Analysis (electrons and holes), in FETs the current conduction is by only one type of charge
carrier (either electrons or holes).

The biasing voltage across R2 is given by Types of FETs

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop  Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
 Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop
A junction field effect transistor (JFET) is a three terminal semiconductor device in
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸 But 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 which current conduction is by one type of carrier i.e., electrons or holes.

Page 31 of 43
There are two types of JFETs names P-channel JFET and N-channel JFET.

Construction of a JFET

A JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two p-n junctions at the
sides as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting channel for the charge
carriers. If the bar is of ntype, it is called n-channel JFET as shown in figure (i) and
if the bar is of p-type, it is called a pchannel JFET as shown in figure (ii). The two
p-n junctions forming diodes are connected internally and a common terminal
called gate (G) is taken out. Other terminals are source (S) and drain (D) taken out
from the bar as shown.
Working of a JFET

When a voltage VDS is applied between drain and source terminals and voltage on
the gate (VGS) is zero as shown in figure (i), the two p-n junctions at the sides of the
bar establish depletion layers. The electrons will flow from source to drain through
a channel between the depletion layers. The size of these layers determines the
width of the channel and hence the current conduction through the bar.

When a reverse voltage VGS is applied between the gate and source as shown in
figure (ii), the width of the depletion layers is increased. This reduces the width of
conducting channel, thereby increasing the resistance of n-type bar. Consequently,
the current from source to drain is decreased. On the other hand, if the reverse
voltage on the gate is decreased, the width of the depletion layers also decreases.
This increases the width of the conducting channel and hence source to drain
current.
A JFET has three terminals namely Gate (G), Source (S), and Drain (D).

JFET polarities

Regardless of the type of JFET, the voltage between the gate and source is such that
the gate is reverse biased as shown in figure (i) and (ii) below. This is the normal
way of JFET connection.

Schematic (circuit) symbol of a JFET

The figure below shows the circuit symbols of the two types of JFETs.
Page 32 of 43
  N-channel D-MOSFET  P-channel D-MOSFET
ii. Enhancement-type MOSFET or E-MOSFET.

The E-MOSFET can be operated only in enhancement-mode.

Types of E-MOSFET

 N-channel E-MOSFET
 P-channel E-MOSFET
Construction of D-MOSFET

It consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing a n-type or p-type substrate at

right hand side as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting channel for the
charge carriers. If the bar is of n-type, it is called n-channel D-MOSFET as shown
in figure below and if the bar is of ptype, it is called a p-channel D-MOSFET. The
gate terminal is deposited on a thin layer of silicon (IV) oxide which is deposited at
one side (left hand side) of the channel. Other terminals are source (S) and drain
(D) taken out from the bar as shown. The substrate is internally connected to the
source terminal.

Applications of JFET

 Used as a switch
 Used as an amplifier
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Unlike a JFET that can only work in the depletion mode only (reducing the width
of the conduction channel), a MOSFET can be operated in two modes, that is, the
depletion mode (decreasing the width of the conduction channel) and the
enhancement mode (increasing the width of the conduction channel). Construction of E-MOSFET
Types of MOSFETs It consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar (channel) containing a n-type or p-type
substrate at right hand side that extends across the channel thus dividing the
i. Depletion-type MOSFET or D-MOSFET. channel into two parts as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting channel for
The D-MOSFET can be operated in both the depletion-mode and the enhancement- the charge carriers. If the bar is of n-type, it is called n-channel E-MOSFET as
shown in figure below and if the bar is of p-type, it is called a p-channel E-
mode. For this reason, a D-MOSFET is sometimes called depletion/enhancement MOSFET. The gate terminal is deposited on a thin layer of silicon (IV) oxide which
MOSFET. Types of D-MOSFET is deposited at one side (left hand side) of the channel. Other terminals are source
(S) and drain
Page 33 of 43
(D) taken out from the bar as shown. The substrate is internally connected to the
source terminal.

Operation of D-MOSFET Depletion Mode

Considering the circuit shown below, the current is initially flowing through the n-
Circuit symbol of the types of MOSFETs channel from the drain to the source. When the gate source voltage (V GG) is
increased, the gate terminal become negatively charged thus repelling the electrons
in the n-channel. The repelled electrons leaves behind holes near the gate terminal
and the p-layer grows towards the gate terminal. As more gate source voltage is
applied, the p-layer (substrate) eventually cuts the channel in two parts thus
depleting the flow of electrons (current) through the channel.

Figure (i) below shows a n-channel E-MOSFET while figure (ii) shows a p-channel Enhancement Mode
E-MOSFET.
Considering the circuit shown below, the current is initially flowing through the n-
channel from the drain to the source. When the gate source voltage (V GG) is
increased, the gate terminal become positively charged thus attracting the electrons
in the n-channel. The attracted electrons increases the concentration of electrons
near the gate terminal thus diffuse into the p-layer (substrate) to fill the holes. As a
Page 34 of 43
result, the substrate (p-layer) decreases and thus increases (enhances) the n-channel Applications of MOSFTETs
and consequently increases the current through the channel.
 Used in switching circuits
 Used in power control circuits
 Used in amplifier circuits
 Used in DC motor drives

Values and ratings of electronic components

Resistor colour codes

We can determine the value of a resistor using its colour code or using an ohmmeter
(or a multimeter).

Here, we will determine the value or size of a resistor using its color code. A
resistor (fixed) has different colour bands printed on its body like the one shown in
Operation of E-MOSFET the figure below. To measure the resistance of a resistor using a multimeter, the
appropriate ohmmeter scale is selected and the two leads (red and black leads) of
This type of MOSFET only operates in the enhancement mode. the multimeter connected to the two ends of the resistor. The value of the resistance
Initially when there is no gate source voltage applied at the gate, no current that can will be displayed on the screen of the multimeter.
flow through the channel of the MOSFET. When a positive gate source voltage
(VGS) is applied, electrons gets attracted from the n-channel to fill the holes in the
p-substrate near the gate terminal and current starts to flow through the n-channel.
As more gate voltage is applied, more electrons gets attracted to the gate terminal
leading to decreasing in the length of the p-substrate. Consequently, the current
through the channel increases (conduction of the n-channel is enhanced).

The colour bands and their corresponding values are shown in the table below.

Page 35 of 43
 Resistance value is 10 × 103𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 10000 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 10 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ± 5%

For 5 or 6 Band Resistors

Resistors with high precision have an extra color band to indicate a third significant
digit. If your resistor has five or six color bands, the third band becomes this
additional digit of the resistance value along with bands one and two. Everything
else shifts to the right, making the fourth color band the multiplier and the fifth
band the tolerance. A six-band indicates the reliability, or the temperature
coefficient (ppm/K) specification. Using brown, the most common sixth band
color, as an example, every temperature change of 10°C changes the resistance
value by 0.1%.

Depending on the size of the transistor, it can have three, four, five or six colour
Resistance value 152 × 106𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 152 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ± 0.1% Assignment:
bands. The last one two colour bands are for tolerance and temperature coefficients
respectively. Determine the resistance of resistors with the following colour bands.
For a 3-band or 4-band resistor  Yellow,Violet, Orange, Silver
The first two bands always denote the first two digits of the resistance  Brown, Black, Black, Gold
value in ohms. On a three or four-band resistor, the third band  Red, Red, Gold
represents the multiplier (power of 10). The fourth color band signifies  Blue, Grey, White, Yellow, Silver, Black
tolerance. Keep in mind that if this band is absent and you are looking at a
three-band resistor, the default tolerance is ±20%.

Page 36 of 43
 Capacitance of a capacitor called the multiplier and is usually written as the power of 10 and it is multiplied to
the first two figures obtained previously. The letter written together with the
To measure the capacitance of a capacitor using a multimeter, the knob is adjusted number on the capacitor body is used to indicate the tolerance of the capacitor. If
to the capacitance section and the two multimeter leads connected to the two the number is two digits, the multiplier is assumed to be zero. The tolerances
terminals of the capacitor. corresponding to the respective letters are shown in the table in the figure below.
We can also determine the value of the capacitance by reading it from the writings The value is expressed in Pico Farads (pF).
(code) on the body of the capacitor. Note: 1 pF = 10−12 𝐹
For electrolytic capacitors, their capacitance value and voltage ratings are written on
For example, the value of the capacitance of the capacitor shown below is 10 ×
the paper enclosing the capacitor body as shown in the figure below. The value of
104𝑝𝐹
the capacitance is expressed in µF.

Note: 1 µF = 10−6 𝐹

In the figure below, the capacitance of the capacitor is 150µF, the maximum
voltage rating is 400V, and the maximum temperature that the capacitor can
withstand is 1050C.

Assignment
Determine the capacitance of the following capacitors. Leave your answer in
farads (F).

For ceramic capacitors like the one shown in the figure below, to get the
capacitance of the capacitor, we take the first two digits on the capacitor body to be
the first two figures of the capacitance. The third digit on the capacitor body is

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 UNIT 3: POWER SUPPLIES 1. Transformer
In this topic, we will discuss the construction and operation of DC power supplies. Its job is either to step up or (mostly) step down the ac supply voltage to suit the
requirement of the solid-state electronic devices and circuits fed by the dc power
Most of the electronic devices and circuits require a dc source for their operation.
supply. It also provides isolation from the supply line–an important safety
Dry cells and batteries are one form of dc source. They have the advantage of
consideration.
being portable and ripple-free. However, their voltages are low, they need
frequent replacement and are expensive as compared to conventional dc power 2. Rectifier
supplies. Since the most convenient and economical source of power is the
domestic ac supply, it is advantageous to convert this alternating voltage (usually, It is a circuit which employs one or more diodes to convert ac voltage into
220 V rms) to dc voltage (usually smaller in value). pulsating dc voltage.

This process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification and is 3. Filter
accomplished with the help of a rectifier, filter, and voltage regulator circuit.
The function of this circuit element is to remove the fluctuations or pulsations
These elements put together constitute dc power supply.
(called ripples) present in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier. Of course,
There are two types of dc power supplies: unregulated dc power supply, and no filter can, in practice, gives an output voltage as ripple-free as that of a dc
regulated dc power supply. battery but it approaches it so closely that the power supply performs as well.

Unregulated Power Supply 4. Voltage Regulator

An unregulated power supply is one whose dc terminal voltage is affected Its main function is to keep the terminal voltage of the dc supply constant even
significantly by the amount of load. As the load draws more current, the dc
terminal voltage becomes less. when (i) Ac input voltage to the transformer varies (deviations from 220 V are

Regulated Power Supply common); or

It is that dc power supply whose terminal voltage remains almost constant (ii) The load varies.
regardless of the amount of current drawn from it. An unregulated supply can be Usually, Zener diodes and transistors are used for voltage regulation purposes.
converted into a regulated power supply by adding a voltage regulating circuit to Again, it is impossible to get 100% constant voltage but minor variations are
it. acceptable for most of the jobs.
The figure below shows a basic block diagram of a regulated dc power supply 5. Voltage Divider

Its function is to provide different dc-voltages needed by different electronic

circuits. It consists of a number of resistors connected in series across the output
terminals of the voltage regulator. Obviously, it eliminates the necessity of
providing separate dc power supplies to different electronic circuits working on
A typical dc power supply consists of five stages as shown in Fig. 55.1. different dc levels.

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Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac power to dc power.

Rectification is the process of converting ac power to dc power.

Single-phase half-wave rectifier

Working

During the positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, the diode D is forward-biased
The figure above shows a full-wave center-tapped rectifier circuit. During the
(ON) and conducts. While conducting, the diode acts as a short-circuit so that
positive half cycle of the supply voltage, M is positive while N is negative w.r.t G.
circuit current flows and hence, positive halfcycle of the input ac voltage is
For this reason, the diodes D1 is forward bias while D2 is reverse bias. Load
dropped across RL. During the negative input half-cycle, the diode is reverse-
current will flow through the D1. During the negative half cycle of the supply
biased (OFF) and so, does not conduct i.e. there is no current flow. Hence, there is
voltage, N is positive while M is negative w.r.t G, thus D2 is forward bias while D1
no voltage drop across RL. For this reason, the negative half cycle of the supply
is reverse bias. The load current now flows through D2.
voltage is not part of the output voltage. It constitutes the output voltage V L as
shown in figure (b). Waveform of the load voltage is also shown in figure (b). It The waveforms for the input and output voltages are similar to those of a full-
consists of halfwave rectified sinusoids of peak value VLM. wave bridge rectifier shown below.

Advantages of full-wave bridge rectifier

(i) It requires only two diodes unlike the bridge rectifier which requires four diodes.
(ii) As during each half-cycle of ac input only one diode conducts, the voltage drop in
the internal resistance is low compared to that of bridge rectifier.

Disadvantages of full-wave center-tap rectifier

(i) It is difficult to locate the center tap on the secondary winding.

Single-phase full-wave rectifier (ii) The dc output is small as each diode utilizes only one-half of the transformer
secondary voltage.
The full-wave rectifier circuit can be made from a center tap transformer and two (iii) The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage
diodes or a normal transformer and bridge circuit of four diodes.
NB. The peak inverse voltage, PIV = 2Vsm
Working
Full-wave Bridge rectifier
Full-wave center-tap (mid-point) rectifier

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 Working Filter Circuits

This circuit consist of a transformer without center tap and four diodes as shown As shown in the above waveforms, for full-wave and half-wave rectifiers, there is
in the figure below. oscillating factor which is not needed by dc components operated by the dc
supply. Therefore, smoothing or filtering is needed to remove (reduce) the ripple
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, M is positive w.r.t N. Thus, diodes
effect and regulation to stabilize the output voltage.
D1, D3 are forward bias while diodes D2, D4 are reverse bias. Load current flows
through D1 and D3. During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, N is A filter circuit is a device which removes the ac component of rectifier output but
positive w.r.t M and thus diodes D2, D4 are forward bias while diodes D1, D3 are allows the dc component to reach the load.
reverse bias. The load current now flows through D2 and D4. The waveforms of
A filter circuit is generally a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
the input and output voltage are shown in figure (b) below. A shown in the output
voltage waveforms, voltage appear across the load (current flows through the NB: A capacitor passes ac readily but does not pass dc at all while on the other
load) in both half cycles and that is why it is known as full-wave rectifier. hand, an inductor opposes ac but allows dc to pass through it.

Types of Filter Circuits

The most commonly used filter circuits are

 Capacitor filter,
 Choke input filter
 Capacitor input filter or π-filter.
Capacitor Filter

It consists of a capacitor C placed across the rectifier output in parallel with load
Advantages of full-wave bridge rectifier RL.

(i) The need for center-tapped transformer is eliminated.

(ii) The output is twice that of the center-tap circuit for the same secondary voltage.
(iii) The PIV is one-half that of the center-tap circuit (for same dc output).

Disadvantages of full-wave bridge rectifier

(i) It requires four diodes. Operation

(ii) As during each half-cycle of ac input two diodes conducts in series, the voltage
The pulsating direct voltage of the rectifier is applied across the capacitor. As the
drop in the internal resistance is high compared to that of center-tap rectifier.
rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the
load. At the end of quarter cycle [Point A in figure (iii)], the capacitor is charged to
the peak value Vm of the rectifier voltage. Now, the rectifier voltage starts to
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decrease. As this occurs, the capacitor discharges through the load and voltage prevents the dc component to flow through it. Therefore, only dc component
across it (i.e. across parallel combination of R-C) decreases as shown by the line AB reaches the load.
in figure (iii). The voltage across load will decrease only slightly because
Capacitor input filter or π-filter
immediately the next voltage peak comes and recharges the capacitor. This
process is repeated again and again and the output voltage waveform becomes The figure below shows a typical capacitor input filter or π-filter. It consists of a
ABCDEFG. filter capacitor C1 connected across the rectifier output, a choke L in series and
another filter capacitor C2 connected across the load. Only one filter section is
NB: The capacitor filter circuit is extremely popular because of its low cost, small
shown but several identical sections are often used to improve the smoothing
size, little weight and good characteristics. For small load currents (say upto 50
action.
mA), this type of filter is preferred. It is commonly used in transistor radio battery
eliminators.

Choke input filter

The figure below shows a typical choke input filter circuit. It consists of a choke L
connected in series with the rectifier output and a filter capacitor C across the
load. Only a single filter section is shown, but several identical sections are often
used to reduce the pulsations as effectively as possible.

Operation

The pulsating output from the rectifier is applied across the input terminals (i.e.
terminals 1 and 2) of the filter. The filtering action of the three components C1, L
and C2 of this filter is described below

(a) The filter capacitor C1 offers low reactance to ac component of rectifier

Operation
output while it offers infinite reactance to the dc component. Therefore, capacitor
The pulsating output of the rectifier is applied across terminals 1 and 2 of the filter C1 bypasses an appreciable amount of ac component while the dc component
circuit. The choke offers high opposition to the passage of ac component but continues its journey to the choke L.
negligible opposition to the dc component. The result is that most of the ac
component appears across the choke while whole of dc component passes
(b) The choke L offers high reactance to the ac component but it offers
almost zero reactance to the dc component. Therefore, it allows the dc
through the choke on its way to load. This results in the reduced pulsations at
component to flow through it, while the un-bypassed ac component is blocked.
terminal 3. At terminal 3, the rectifier output contains dc component and the
remaining part of ac component which has managed to pass through the choke. (c) The filter capacitor C2 bypasses the ac component which the choke has
Now, the low reactance of filter capacitor bypasses the ac component but failed to block. Therefore, only dc component appears across the load and that is
what we desire.

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 The figures below shows simple circuits of how the filter circuits are incorporated For example, a voltage doubler will provide a dc output that is twice the peak
to the rectifier circuit. input ac voltage, a voltage tripler will provide a dc output that is three times the
peak input ac voltage and so on.

While voltage multipliers provide dc output that is much greater than the peak
input ac voltage, there is no power amplification and law of conservation of
energy holds good. When a voltage multiplier increases the peak input voltage by
a factor n, the peak input current is decreased by approximately the same factor.

Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

Voltage Multipliers
Operation
A voltage multiplier is a circuit which produces a greater dc output voltage than ac
input voltage to the rectifiers. During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (not D2) and
charges C1 to peak value of secondary voltage (V m) with the polarity as shown in
Multipliers are required in many circuit applications where it is necessary to have
figure (a). During the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts (not D1) and charges C2.
high voltages with low currents as for electron accelerating purposes in a cathode-
The voltage across C2 is the sum of peak supply voltage and the voltage across C1
ray tube (CRT).
(C1 will be discharging to C2). At this point the voltage across the capacitor C2 and
We will consider the following circuits: hence across the load will be twice that at the secondary coil of the transformer.
During the next positive half-cycle, D2 is open and C2 will discharge through the
 Half-wave voltage doubler, load while C1 charges to peak voltage and the above process is repeated for the
 Full-wave voltage doubler, subsequent half cycles.
 Voltage tripler,
Note: This circuit has very poor regulation and its ripple content is also high. This
 Voltage quadrupler
circuit has a common connection between the line and load (which a full-wave
We can use diodes and capacitors to build voltage multipliers. doubler does not have). Full-Wave Voltage Doubler

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 Operation

During the first positive half-cycle, C1 charges to Vm as diode D1 conducts. During

negative half-cycle, C2 is charged through D2 to 2Vm (i.e. to the sum of voltage
across C1 and peak input voltage Vm).
During the second positive half-cycle, D3 conduct and voltage across C2 charges C3
to same voltage 2Vm (C1 cannot charge C3 because it is shorted by D1). During the
negative half-cycle, diodes D2 and D4 conduct allowing C3 to charge C4 to the
same peak voltage 2Vm. If is seen from Fig. 55.34 that voltage across C2 is 2V m,
across C1 and C3 is 3V m and across C2 and C4 is 4V m. If additional diodes and
capacitors are used, each capacitor would be charged to a peak voltage of 2Vm.

When voltage is taken across diode D3, its value would be triple that of the supply
Operation (tripler) and if voltage is taken across diode d4, its value would be four times that
of the supply (quadrupler).
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (but not D2) and
charges capacitor C1 to the peak voltage Vm with the polarity as shown. During Note: The basic idea in a voltage multiplier is to charge each capacitor to the peak
the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts (but not D1) charging C2 to Vm. As far as the input a.c. voltage and to arrange the capacitors so that their stored voltages will
load is concerned, voltages across C1 and C2 are in series-aiding. If there is a load add.
connected across the output (across the two capacitors), then load voltage VL =
Voltage Stabilization
2Vm as shown in figure (a).
In many electronic applications, it is desired that the output voltage should remain
Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Circuits
constant regardless of the variations in the input voltage or load. In order to
ensure this, a voltage stabilizing device, called voltage stabilizer is used.

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