Stages of Development
According to Havighurst, there are six major developmental
periods:
1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years): This stage involves
rapid growth and the establishment of basic trust and attachment.
2. Middle Childhood (6-12 years): Children develop skills and
competencies, including social interactions and academic abilities.
3. Adolescence (12-18 years): This period is marked by identity
formation and the quest for independence.
4. Early Adulthood (19-30 years): Individuals focus on forming
intimate relationships and establishing careers.
5. Middle Adulthood (30-60 years): The emphasis shifts to
nurturing the next generation and contributing to society.
6. Late Maturity (60+ years): This stage involves reflection on
life and coping with physical decline and loss
Issues on Human Development
1. Nature vs. Nurture
One of the central debates in human development is the nature vs.
nurture issue, which questions whether genetics or environmental
factors play a more significant role in shaping an individual. This
ongoing discussion seeks to understand the relative contributions of
inherited traits versus life experiences in development
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Another important issue is the continuity vs.
discontinuity debate, which examines whether development
occurs gradually over time or through distinct stages. This question
is crucial for understanding how individuals change and grow
throughout their lives.
3. Stability vs. Change
The stability vs. change issue focuses on whether individuals
maintain consistent traits and behaviors over time or if they
undergo significant changes due to various influences. This aspect is
vital for exploring personality development and the potential for
transformation throughout life.
4. Theoretical Approaches
Different theoretical approaches address these issues, each offering
unique perspectives on how people change and develop. These
theories contribute to a deeper understanding of the complexities of
human development and the factors that influence growth across
the lifespan.
Research in Child and Adolescent Development
The scientific method
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis (educated guess)
3. Collect and analyze data (experimental or descriptive research)
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
This process enables teachers to systematically investigate
educational issues, make informed decisions, and enhance student
learning.
Types of Research Designs
Case Study
2. Correlational Study
3. Experimental
4. Naturalistic Observation
5. Longitudinal
6. Cross-sectional
8. Action Research
7. Sequential
Data Gathering Techniques
1. Observation
2. Physilogical measures
3. Standardized
4. Interview and questionnaires
Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
1. Structure of the Mind: Freud divided the mind into three parts:
a. Id: The primal part that seeks immediate gratification and
operates on the pleasure principle.
b. Ego: The rational part that mediates between the desires of the
id and the realities of the external world.
c. Superego: The moral component that internalizes societal norms
and values, often in conflict with the id
.
2. Unconscious Processes: Freud believed that many of our
thoughts and motivations are repressed in the unconscious. He
argued that bringing these unconscious elements into conscious
awareness could lead to healing and insight, a process central to
psychoanalytic therapy
3. Therapeutic Techniques: Freud developed techniques such
as free association, where patients are encouraged to speak freely
about their thoughts, which helps uncover repressed emotions and
experiences. The goal of psychoanalysis is to release these
repressed feelings, allowing individuals to gain insight into their
behaviors and mental disorders
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
The Four Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): In this initial stage,
infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. They
develop object permanence, understanding that objects continue to
exist even when they cannot be seen.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): During this stage,
children begin to use language and engage in symbolic play.
However, their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric, meaning
they struggle to see perspectives other than their own.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): At this stage,
children start to think logically about concrete events. They gain a
better understanding of the concept of conservation (the idea that
quantity doesn’t change even when its shape does) and can perform
operations mentally rather than just physically.
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up): In the final
stage, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and reason
logically. They can formulate hypotheses and consider possibilities,
allowing for more complex problem-solving and critical thinking.
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development
The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): In this stage, infants learn to trust
their caregivers and the world around them. Successful resolution
leads to a sense of security, while failure results in fear and
suspicion.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood): Children
begin to assert their independence. Encouragement fosters
autonomy, while excessive criticism can lead to feelings of shame
and doubt about their abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Age): As children initiate
activities and assert control, they develop a sense of initiative. If
their efforts are met with criticism, they may feel guilt over their
needs and desires.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age): In this stage, children
learn to work with others and develop skills. Success leads to a
sense of competence, while failure can result in feelings of
inferiority.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Adolescents
explore their personal identity and sense of self. Successful
resolution leads to a strong identity, while failure can result in
confusion about one's role in society.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Young adults seek
to form intimate relationships. Successful resolution fosters deep
connections, while failure can lead to isolation and loneliness.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): In this
stage, individuals strive to contribute to society and support future
generations. Success leads to feelings of productivity, while failure
can result in stagnation and self-absorption.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): As individuals reflect
on their lives, they seek a sense of fulfillment and integrity. A
successful resolution leads to wisdom, while failure can result in
regret and despair.
Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development
The Three Levels of Moral Development
1. Preconventional Level: This level is typical of children and is
characterized by a focus on self-interest and the consequences of
actions.
A. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Moral
reasoning is based on avoiding punishment.
B. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Individuals recognize
that there is not just one right view, and they pursue their own
interests while considering others' needs.
2. Conventional Level: At this level, individuals begin to
internalize societal norms and values.
C. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: Moral reasoning
is based on living up to social expectations and roles, emphasizing
relationships and approval from others.
D. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: Individuals focus on
obeying laws and maintaining social order, believing that rules are
necessary for a functioning society.
3. Post-Conventional Level: This level involves a more abstract
understanding of morality, where individuals recognize universal
ethical principles.
E. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Individuals
understand that laws are social contracts that should promote the
greatest good for the greatest number, and they value individual
rights.
F. Stage 6: Universal Principles: Moral reasoning is based on
abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles, such as justice
and equality, which may transcend laws and social agreements.
Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): One of Vygotsky's
most significant contributions is the concept of the ZPD, which
refers to the difference between what a child can do independently
and what they can achieve with guidance and support from more
knowledgeable others (MKOs), such as parents, teachers, or peers.
This concept highlights the potential for cognitive development
when children engage in collaborative learning experiences
2. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): The MKO is a person who
has a higher understanding or skill level than the learner in a
particular area. This could be an adult or a peer who provides
assistance and guidance, facilitating the learner's development
within their ZPD.
3. Cultural Tools and Mediation: Vygotsky argued that cognitive
development is mediated by cultural tools, such as language,
symbols, and artifacts. These tools shape how individuals think and
learn, emphasizing that cognitive processes are not only biological
but also culturally constructed.
4. Social Interaction: Vygotsky posited that social interaction is
fundamental to cognitive development. Through dialogue and
collaboration, children learn to internalize knowledge and develop
higher-order thinking skills. This process is influenced by the cultural
norms and values of the society in which they live.
Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
1. Microsystem: This is the innermost layer and includes the
immediate environments that an individual interacts with, such as
family, school, peers, and neighborhood. These direct interactions
have a significant impact on a person's development.
2. Mesosystem: This layer represents the interconnections
between different microsystems. For example, the relationship
between a child's home and school environments can influence their
overall development. Positive interactions between these systems
can enhance developmental outcomes.
3. Exosystem: This level includes broader social systems that do
not directly involve the individual but still affect their development.
For instance, a parent's workplace policies or community resources
can impact a child's well-being and opportunities.
4. Macrosystem: This outermost layer encompasses the cultural
and societal influences that shape an individual's environment. It
includes factors such as cultural values, laws, and economic
conditions that can affect development on a larger scale.
5. Chronosystem: This component considers the dimension of
time, reflecting how changes and transitions in an individual's life
(such as moving to a new city or changes in family structure) and
historical events (like economic recessions) can influence
development.
