POSSIBLE

EXAMQUESTIONS
THEORY
PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE

by EVDB & AV

2024-2025
(BASED ON EXAM 2022)

1
1. Safety concepts (H2)
• Explain
o limit states: ULS and SLS
o levels of safety
• How are characteristic material values determined?
• What are common partial safety factors?
• How to handle verification of the limit states?

Resistance of used materials > Effect of actions

R>E
Limit States
= a condition beyond which the structure or part of a structure does no longer fulfill one of its
performance requirements

• Ultimate Limit State (ULS): Ensures structural safety by preventing collapse or failure
under maximum load combinations.
• Serviceability Limit State (SLS): Ensures user comfort and functionality by limiting
deflections, vibrations, and cracking under normal service loads.

We always design in the ULS, and verify in SLS

Levels of safety (design in ULS)

0. deterministic or nominal quantities
➔ one global agreed safety factor γ
1. semi-probabilistic method
➔ characteristic values, design values, partial safety factors
2. Simplifications
➔ Safety-index or reliability index ϐ
3. Fully probabilistic
➔ Failure probability Pf

Characteristic Material Values

• Defined as the value below which only 5% of material test results fall (5th
percentile).
o For concrete: fck = compressive strength, tested on 28-day-old concrete cylinder
o For steel reinforcement: fyk = yield strength, determined from tensile tests

Partial Safety Factors (ULS)

R/γ > E*γ = Rd > Ed

Resistance of materials is underestimated and effect of loads is overestimated

o For materials (ULS): o For loads (ULS):

▪ Concrete: 1.5 ▪ Dead loads: 1.35
▪ Steel: 1.15 ▪ Live loads: 1.5

Verification (SLS)
NRd > NEd ? …
Verify serviceability criteria for all relevant internal forces (N, M, V, T)

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2. Material properties of concrete and steel (H2)
• What properties do we use in design?
• How does this translate into stress-strain diagrams? (discuss stages)
• Discuss the relationship in behaviour of concrete and steel
• Explain the alpha coefficient: what is it, how is it obtained and what values does it
take

Properties Used in Design

1. Concrete
o fck: characteristic compressive strength at 28 days (cube or cylinder)
o fctk: tensile strength; =0,1 fck (flexural or splitting)
o EC: modulus of elasticity; stiffness of concrete,
o ρ: desity, typically 2500 kg/m³ for RC
o Permeability
o Creep and Shrinkage: long-term deformation due to sustained loading and
drying.
2. Steel
o fyk : characteristic yield strength
o ES: modulus of elasticity; stiffness of steel, 200 GPa
o Ductility: steel can undergo large plastic deformations, ensuring energy
dissipation.

Stress-Strain Diagrams + behaviour

1. Concrete Stress-Strain Behaviour

1. Elastic Stage
Linear relationship until 0.4*fcm
with slope = secant modulus of
elasticity Ecm

2. Inelastic/Plastic Stage
Nonlinear increase in stress up to
peak compressive strength fcm

3. Post-Peak Behaviour
Brittle failure under compression;
minimal stress after peak strength.

4. Tension Behaviour
Brittle; cracks form suddenly once
tensile strength fctm is exceeded.
Max strain = εcu

NB: diagram for compression; tension is ignored for cracking analysis.

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NB: we use a simplified design diagram: parabolic & rectangular idealization (!in design -> ULS!)

for normal strength concrete (<C50/60)

2. Steel Stress-Strain Behaviour

1. Elastic Stage
Linear up to the yield stress
fyk with slope = Es

2. Plastic Stage
Plateau at yield stress, allowing
for significant deformation
without strength increase

3. Strain Hardening (Optional

in Prestressed Steel)
Increase in stress beyond yield,
leading to ultimate strength fuk

For compression + tension:

NB: we use a simplified design

diagram for steel (in design -> ULS)

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Relationship Between Concrete and Steel Behaviour

1. Compatibility:
o Both materials deform together due to strain compatibility in reinforced
concrete structures. It works as a monolithic element.
o They have the same thermal expansion coefficient. (10×10-6 per K)
o Steel resists tension (ductile), while concrete resists compression (brittle).
2. Bond Interaction:
o The bond between concrete and steel ensures load transfer. This is
strengthened by the shape of the rebar (smooth, dented, ribbed)
o Proper anchorage is critical to prevent slippage.
3. Complementary Strengths:
o Concrete’s compressive strength offsets steel’s weak compression capacity.
o Steel’s ductility and tensile strength offset concrete’s brittle tension failure.
4. (Prestressed Concrete):
o Uses high-strength steel tendons to induce compressive stresses in concrete.
o Improves cracking resistance and serviceability by balancing tensile stresses.

alpha coefficient
The alpha coefficient is a stiffness parameter.

Because of the fact that reinforced concrete bends as a monolithic element, we assume that
their strain is the same: εc = εs. This allows us to describe a correlation between the stresses in
the steel and concrete: α=Es/Ec

This parameter can vary in time, so we use two values: 6 for short-term loads & 15 for long-term
loads.

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3. Design of columns (H3)
• Explain the design process, mention:
o safety concepts: ULS, SLS
o centric longitudinal force
o eccentricity
o reinforcement
▪ stirrup design? (trick question, you just use the eurocode rules)
• What are the made assumptions for column design?
• What is the equivalent (or fictitious) cross-section?
• (How do we calculate centric compression?)

Design Process
To design a reinforced concrete column, we must calculate when the column has sufficient
resistance to an imposed load. We design the resistance of the element in the ultimate limit
state (most critical load combinations with partial safety factors). We verify if this resistance is
sufficient for the load combinations in the serviceability limit state (characteristic values). We
use the limit state equation in design:

The design of columns involves the following steps:

1. Determine Actions
A column is theoretically only subjected to an axial load (pure compression), i.e. a centric
longitudinal force.
➔ acts through the centroid of the column
➔ causes uniform compression
➔ the column section resists compression effectively until failure due to crushing,
determined by the cross-sectional area and material strength.

In practice, simple centric compression rarely occurs in monolithic concrete structures due to
accidental eccentricities and geometric imperfections (only in case of hinges -> pure
compression). So we identify an eccentricity, causing a bending moment.
➔ eccentricity = the distance between the load’s line of action and the centroid
➔ creates non-uniform stress distribution (compression + tension)

We always consider a minimum eccentricity

emin = max (h/30, 20mm)

We consider the acting loads and bending moment in 4 load combinations (NEd)
1. Rare (or characteristic) load combination -> design in ULS and verify in SLS
2. Frequent load combination
3. Quasi-permanent load combination -> verify in SLS
4. Accidental load combination

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 2. Section design
To find the normal resistance for a column, we use the resistance formula:

- concrete area Ac
➔ resist compression
➔ rectangular or circular (other geometry possible)
➔ composite column (steel imbedded in concrete)

- longitudinal reinforcement As
➔ increases ductility, important for accidental loads
➔ resists tension due to secondary moments (eccentricities)
➔ reduces column shortening due to shrinkage and creep
➔ increases load carrying capacity -> smaller section dimensions possible
➔ has a minimum and maximum value:

- transverse reinforcement (stirrups)

➔ prevents buckling of longitudinal bars and enhances ductility
➔ spacing requirements depend on section dimensions and applied loads
➢ generally more stirrups are required towards the middle of the column,
where shear and buckling are critical

3. Verification
We ensure the column satisfies safety and serviceability requirements (stress review).
First, we determine the stresses for every load, for short- and long-term (alpha= 6 or 15). We
use formulas:

After the total stresses per term per load combination (characteristic and Q-P) are calculated,
we check according to the following restrictions:

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Assumptions in Column Design
For the stress state of reinforced concrete in the uncracked state, we assume:

o perfect bond between concrete and steel, so the strain of both materials is the same
εc = ε s
o approximately same coefficient of thermal expansion (10*10-6 per K)

o hypothesis of NAVIER-BERNOUILLI: plane cross-sections are plan and remain plane

and orthogonal to the beam axis

Other assumptions:
- for short columns (small slenderness), we neglect second order effects (so pure compression)
- concrete tensile strength is ignored for cracking analysis
- SLS: linear elastic material behaviour for the steel and concrete
- ULS: design diagrams (simplified diagrams)

Equivalent or Fictitious Cross-Section

For complex shapes, an equivalent section simplifies design.
We introduce an equivalence coefficient alpha that converts one material - e.g. steel - into an
equivalent area of another material, e.g. concrete: (zie ook vraag 2)

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4. Concrete Cover (H4)
• Explain
• How to calculate?
o Give examples of exposure classes
• Are there situations where you can use a smaller or have to use a bigger concrete
cover then the one we normally use?

What is concrete cover?

Concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the concrete and the nearest
surface of embedded reinforcement. It serves several critical purposes:
- durability: protection against corrosion (caused by external factors, f.e. freeze-thaw
cycles or chemicals)
- transmission of bonding forces between steel & concrete
- compaction of fresh concrete
- fire resistance (delay, not prevention)

The required cover depends on structural requirements, environmental exposure, and

construction tolerances.

Calculation

For cmin,dur, we use tables of exposure classes and constructionclasses. Standard choice for
constructionclass is S4 (50years). Examples:
XC1: indoor environment
XC4: outdoor environment, freezing, exposure to rain
XS2: marine environment, freezing, contact with water, submerged

a is the required spacing between reinforcement bars and can be calculated according to:

The tolerance Δc = 10mm is an execution tolerance and may be lowered or must be increased.

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Increasing or lowering concrete cover
cmin, dur is increased according to it’s exposure class. The more extreme conditions (chemicals,
freeze-thaw cycles, …), the more thick the concrete cover. The tolerance Δc…

May be lowered if
* fabricated in quality assurance system (prefab) 5 < Δc < 10
* it can be correctly measured 5 < Δc < 10
* quality assurance system + industry quality control + third party Δc < 10

Must be increased
* for casting against uneven surfaces
- stabilized sand: Δc=40mm
- on soil:: Δc = 75mm
- PE-foil on sand bed: Δc = 75mm
- on lean concrete: Δc > 10mm

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5. Anchorage/ bond mechanisms between steel and concrete (H4) (H8)
• Explain locally and on level of a whole beam
o What is mechanical interlock?
• What is bond strength?
• What is the relation to anchorage?
o How do we calculate anchorage, what is the formula of 𝑙𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 ?
o Anchorage length
o Discuss alpha factors
• When do we especially need anchorage? (cracks due to mechanical interlock)

Local bond mechanism and whole beam bonding mechanism

The local bond mechanism ensures load transfer between steel reinforcement and surrounding
concrete through:
- adhesion: chemical bonding between steel and concrete at the interface.
- friction: resistance due to confinement and pressure after setting.
- mechanical interlock: interaction between the ribs of deformed bars and the concrete.
➢ resists slipping by creating localized compressive stresses around the ribs
➢ enhances bond strength, particularly in cracked concrete where adhesion and
friction are compromised

The bond mechanisms on level of a whole beam:

- strain compatibility along the beam
- placement of anchorages to transfer internal forces
➢ in the support zones: high shear and reaction forces
➢ in tension zones: effective load transfer from concrete to steel

What is Bond Strength?

The bond strength fbd is the stress developed at the interface between steel and concrete due
to adhesion, friction, and mechanical interlock. It gives a value that indicates how good
concrete is attached to the reinforcement, and so how well tensile forces are transferred
without slipping.

Relation to anchorage: bond strength is the critical parameter determining anchorage length;
higher bond strength reduces the required anchorage. (see calculation)

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Calculation of anchorage

Anchorage at bar ends must have sufficient length lbd or adapted geometrical shape in order to
be able to transfer a certain force to the surrounding concrete. To calculate lbd, we follow these
staps:

1. Required anchorage length 𝑙𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑

𝑙𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 is the straight bar length that is necessary to transfer the bar force As*σsd to the surrounding
concrete, without global slip. First, we determine the maximal anchor length:

𝜙 𝜎𝑠𝑑
𝑙 ∗ 𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 =
4 𝑓𝑏𝑑

We assume that 𝜎𝑠𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑 , so the yield point of the steel is achieved (max strength)

𝜙 𝑓𝑦𝑑
𝑙 ∗ 𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 =
4 𝑓𝑏𝑑

The basic anchorage length 𝑙𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 takes into account the provided reinforcement area and the
required reinforcement area. At the end of a beam, the stresses are not maximal: 𝜎𝑠𝑑 ≠ 𝑓𝑦𝑑 . So we
interrupt the bars (e.g. 4 to 2 bar). The stress does not need to be equal to the yield point. We find the
following formula:

𝜎𝑠𝑑 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑙𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑 ∗ = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑏,𝑟𝑞𝑑
𝑓𝑏𝑑 𝐴𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣

With:

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2. Anchorage length 𝑙𝑏𝑑

Alpha Factors
𝛼1 : shape of the anchorage
𝛼2 : concrete cover
𝛼3 : confinement by transverse reinforcement, not welded to the main reinforcement
𝛼4 : confinement by transverse reinforcement, welded to the main reinforcement
𝛼5 : impact of lateral pressure

These factors (mostly between 0.7 and 1) can reduce the anchor length, according to 5
parameters. E.g. if the shape is bent, there are more friction forces along the surface that provide
an additional force transfer, therefore 𝛼1 = 0,7

When is Anchorage Especially Needed?

• Crack Formation and Mechanical Interlock:

o In tension zones, cracks reduce adhesion and friction, making mechanical
interlock critical.
o Anchorage ensures that forces transfer effectively even in cracked concrete.
• Critical Scenarios:
o Near supports where bars terminate.
o In seismic design to prevent slip during cyclic loading.
o In prestressed members to anchor tendons effectively.

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6. Concrete beams: flexural design (simple bending) (H5)
• Explain simple bending
• Design process
o Ultimate state design?
• Which considerations change in case of T-sections? (= question 8)

Simple bending
Simple bending (or pure bending) refers to the behavior of a beam (spanning in one direction)
when it is subjected to a constant bending moment, with no shear forces acting on the section.
The bending moment introduces a compressive zone and a tensile zone. Reinforcement is
placed in tensile zones. A beam fails under simple bending when concrete crushes or steel
yields (or both).

Assumptions for simple bending:

1) Deformation hypothesis of NAVIER-BERNOUILLI: plain sections remain plane

2) Concrete does not resist tensile stresses -> cracked section
3) Elastic and homogeneous material
4) Short beams: discontinuity areas

Design Process
This bending moment ‘splits’ the beam in two zones: compression above the neutral axis and
tension under the neutral axis.

To design a beam as economically as possible, we need to exploit the compression capabilities

of concrete and the tension capabilities of steel. We manifest this by calculating in the ULS:
➔ Stress of steel up to yield point: εs = 10*10-3
➔ Stress of concrete until max compression (crushing failure): εc = 3.5*10-3

This is also know as the ultimate limit deformation state. Steel and concrete can hereby deform
to their maximum capabilities.
For practical design calculations, we introduce several dimensionless parameters:

1. Relative moment

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 ➔ helps to determine whether the section is under- or over-utilized

2. Mechanical reinforcement ratio

➔ indicates the balance between steel and concrete in a section

➔ ensures the section avoids being over-reinforced (brittle failure) or under-
reinforced (inefficient use of materials).

3. Effective pressure height

➔ indicates how much of the section is actively contributing to compression

➔ helps determine the capacity of the compression zone to resist applied forces

4. Effective lever arm

➔ determines the effective lever arm, which directly influences the section's
bending resistance:

Where T is the tensile force in the reinforcement.

With these formulas, we can calculate the reinforcement area.

EXTRA: stress verification in SLS + design changes?

Neutral axis -> (fictive moment of inertia) -> determine stresses -> verification

15
Design modifications
1. Larger section (h and/or b increase)
2. Better concrete or steel quality
3. Put extra (compressive) reinforcement on top = “Double reinforcement” (→ question 7)

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7. Compressive reinforcement with bending (double reinforcement) (H5)
• Explain
o When is this actually designed?
• Calculation
o how do we calculate MRef for double reinforcement?
o how do we define this μ?

Explanation
Compressive reinforcement refers to reinforcing steel placed in the compression zone of a
beam cross-section (longitudinally placed). If it is not possible to design a larger beam section,
compressive reinforcement is used. This may occur in specific cases to enhance the
performance of the beam.

There are several reasons to place compressive reinforcement:

➔ As part of the reinforcement cage (practical demands)

➢ cage can be more easily ‘closed’, stirrups can be attached
➢ only minimal amount needed
➢ not taken into account for the calculation of MRd

➔ M-line has different sign across beam section

➢ negative → reinforcement at the bottom
positive → reinforcement at the top
➢ both reinforcement sections still continue (practical)
➢ both reinforcement sections (according to separate MRd) are calculated
independently

➔ Sufficient ductility of the cross-section (ULS)

➢ steel must yield for optimal design
o µ ≥ µ𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.3714
➢ absolute ductility requirement
➢ compressive reinforcement is designed

➔ To lower the compressive stresses in the concrete (quality not good enough)
➢ too high stresses in concrete -> SLS verification is not OK
➢ smaller sections of beam section is possible
➢ compressive reinforcement is designed
𝑓
o µ ≥ µ𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.329 − 0.00588 𝑓𝑦𝑘 (use table 5.5 if fyk=500 N/mm² )
𝑐𝑘

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Calculation (in ULS) (zie ook oefening in WC H5H10 -> duidelijker!)

STEP 1: Superposition

𝑓𝑦𝑘
µ𝑟𝑒𝑓 = µ𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.329 − 0.00588 𝑓 so optimal design is achieved
𝑐𝑘

End result:

STEP 2: Correction top reinforcement

Ratio of concrete to compressive stress differs in ULS and SLS. As a result, another correction is
applied to the final amount of top reinforcement

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8. Ribbed concrete floors (T-section) (H5)
• Explain the concept.
o Ribbed floor? T-section?
• Design process in ULS?
o beff,, 𝑙0 ?
o Floor similarities with T-section (difference in formula)?

Concept
A ribbed floor is composed out of a thin concrete slab that is monolithically connected with
numerous ribs, with a center-to-center distance of 400 to 600 mm. In fact, is consists of numerous
T-sections with effective width, connected at the flanges.

A T-section reinforced concrete beam is a structural element with a wide flange (representing
the slab) and a narrower web (the rib) that efficiently resists bending by utilizing the flange for
compression and the web for shear and tension reinforcement.

Philosophy of the geometry:

In case of bending:
➔ compression upper part → concrete → extra thickness
➔ tension lower part → steel → slender

Design process
Often, a T-section is part of a slab. To determine what part contributes as a beam, we must

19
determine the beff, which is the effective width of the flange.

Where 𝑙0 is the distance between two zero points of the M-line.

We design economically in ULS: MEd = MRd. Determine the reduced moment µ and derive the
neutral axis (with compressive zone).

There are now 2 possible scenarios.

1) neutral axis is situated in the flange
➔ calculate As if it was a rectangle with the width of the flange
➔ verify the stresses in SLS
2) neutral axis is situated in the web.
➔ treat this as 2 rectangles which we subtract from each other (bf, (bf - bw))
➔ verify the stresses in SLS

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9. Equivalent cross-section for T-sections (H5)
• Explain
• When is it used?

Equivalent cross-section
We assume that reinforced concrete bends as a monolithic element and that it has a linear-
elastic material behaviour:
𝜎 = 𝜀∗𝐸 ε c = εs

This allows us to describe a correlation between the stresses in the steel and concrete:

From this equation, we define the equivalence coefficient alpha. This stiffness parameter
converts one material - e.g. steel - into an equivalent area of another material, e.g. concrete:
𝐸
𝛼 = 𝐸𝑠 → 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝛼𝐴𝑠
𝑐

This parameter can vary in time. When calculated for long-term loads, we use 𝛼 = 15.

Equivalent cross-section for T-sections

For complex shapes, an equivalent cross-section simplifies design. The cross section behaves
as a homogeneous material with fictitious/equivalent cross section.

If we perform a stress review for a T-section in SLS, we use the equivalent cross-section with
a static moment Sf = 0 to find the location of the neutral line xe. We assume xe lays in the flange
xe < hf. The used formula:

Stresses can be further calculated (like a rectangular section) and in the end verified.

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10. Shear design: beams(H6)
• Explain
o What is the shear span to depth ratio?
o What are the shear force transmission mechanisms near inclined cracks?
o What is the truss analogy?
o What is the shifting rule?
- why is θ=45° for the struts? What happens if you make it larger/smaller?
o Is there a minimum for transverse reinforcement?

Shear design (i.e. design of transverse reinforcement) ensures that beams can resist shear
forces effectively without brittle failure.
➔ Transverse reinforcement (stirrups) can be placed if needed
➔ No transverse reinforcement is needed if the compressive strength and
longitudinal reinforcement compressive force is high enough
Important to note:
➔ we are discussing the UNCRACKED stage
➢ assume linear elasticity
➔ but also the CRACKED stage
➢ where stress distribution is more complex

𝑎 𝑀
Shear span to depth ratio 𝑑
= 𝑉𝑑
The shear span-to-depth ratio is a key parameter in concrete shear design.
➔ 𝑎 = the distance between the point of load application and the nearest support
➔ d= effective depth

This ratio determines the different types of shear cracks

𝑎
➔ 𝑑
is high: slenderness of beam or point load is far away from support
➢ flexural cracks
o cracks parallel to the short axis of the beam
𝑎
➔ 𝑑
is low: so point load is near support, or high height
➢ flexure-shear cracks
o cracks more inclined

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What are the shear force transmission mechanisms near inclined cracks?

1. Shear strength of the compressive zone 𝑉𝑅,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝

If uncracked
➔ compressive strength of concrete 𝑉𝑅,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 can resist shear
➔ maximum shear strength = 70% of the compressive strength.
➔ height of the compressive zone increases → the shear strength increases
➔ concrete class increases → the shear strength increases.

2. Aggregate interlock 𝑉𝑅,𝑎𝑔𝑔

In cracked regions
➔ normal strength concrete: cracks form around aggregates (matrix = weak)
➢ rough aggregate surfaces provide a shear transfer

3. Dowel effect 𝑉𝑅,𝑑𝑜𝑤 (NL: pluggen-effect)

➔ longitudinal reinforcement bearing against concrete
➔ depends on concrete tensile strength and concrete cover

4. Arch working
Once a diagonal crack forms, the beam may behave like an arch with:
- a compression STRUT, transferring shear through concrete
- tension reinforcement acting as a TIE

This arch action bypasses significant portions of the web and redirects forces to the supports.

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 5. Shear/ transverse reinforcement (stirrups)
Stirrups resists shear by developing tension across diagonal cracks.
➔ limits the growth of the inclined cracks while maintaining the aggregate interlock
➔ suspension of the longitudinal reinforcement, as such that the dowel effect
increases
➔ direct transmission of part of the shear force

Truss analogy (cf. arch working)

The truss analogy is a way of simplifying the complex behaviour of cracked concrete by
representing it with struts (concrete) and ties (steel). It shows a clear load path inside the
concrete element.

Shifting rule
The shifting rule in the truss model is a guideline used to adjust or "shift" the position of nodal
zones (or regions where forces converge) to account for realistic stress distributions in
reinforced concrete structures. This rule ensures that the struts, ties, and nodes align with the
actual load paths, making the model more representative of the structural behaviour.

cot (𝜃)∗𝑧
We shift the moment line by 𝑎𝑣 =
2

Thèta= 45°?
The struts form an angle theta with the beam. We work with theta = 45° for a simple analysis
(cot(45) = 1). This provides a very conservative calculation for the steel stirrups. A smaller
theta makes the truss model flatter and also more efficient. With theta = 26.6° we only need
half of the stirrups. The As goes down. The flatter the truss model (the more slender the beam),
the larger the compressive forces also.

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Minimum reinforcement
First we determine if there is a need for transversal reinforcement:

If so, we determine the spacing s:

25
11. Schear design for T-section (H6) (NL: afschuifwapening)
• Discuss shear transfer between web and flanges
o Where/when/how do we place shear reinforcement?

Shear reinforcement in T-section beams is placed to resist diagonal shear cracks, which primarily
occur in the web due to shear forces. The wide flange of the T-section contributes little to shear
resistance, so the design focuses on reinforcing the web.

Where
Bars in the floor plate or brackets in the flange that pas through the two indicated shear planes
(=transition zones).

When?

How?

If the reinforcement in the pressure strut (standard bending reinforcement) isn’t sufficient, we
design shear reinforcement according to:

Practically, to each head bracket we also place a bracket (of the same diameter) into the flange.
-> spacing is the same for transverse brackets and shear brackets

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12. Complex bending (H7)
• Explain basic concept
o What’s the difference with simple bending?
o What’s the difference with a centric loaded column?
o What are interaction diagrams?
o How to calculate?
• If you add compression force on the beam, is it favourable or not?
o is compressed reinforcement always needed?
• Is shear positively influenced by a normal force in compression? How about the
struts?

Complex bending, or biaxial bending, occurs when a bending moment and a longitudinal force both
act on an element. This equals to a longitudinal force that does not align with the principle axis of
the cross section (eccentricity e creates a bending moment 𝑀 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑒).

The difference with simple bending:

Simple bending refers to bending in a single plane (uniaxial bending), where only one primary
moment exists. For example, a horizontal beam subjected to vertical loads.
➔ varies linearly with max tension and max compression on opposite sides of each
other
➔ deflections occur in one plane.
➔ on-axis loads ↔ off-axis loads with complex bending

The difference with a centric loaded column:

A column with only centric axial load experiences pure compression:
➔ the load is applied to the centroid of the column = no bending moment
➔ ideally no deflections occur
However, when a column experiences eccentric loads or lateral forces, it undergoes bending in
addition to axial compression, making it a case of complex bending.

Interaction Diagrams
P-M diagrams plot the relationship between axial load (P) and bending moment (M) to evaluate
the capacity of the section as a function of the total amount of reinforcement.
E.g.: you can read the max moment an unreinforced column can resist

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How to calculate?
Stresses and deflections can be calculated using superposition, combining contributions from
bending around both axes and axial forces if present.

1) Shift eccentricity to the level of the tensile reinforcement.

2) According to M and N, determine where to place reinforcement
➔ M: theory of simple bending → tensile & compressive reinforcement
➔ N: creates extra tension (lower part) → additional tensile reinforcement
➔ calculate economically: yield point and ductility
3) Design the reinforcement:
➔ compressive: determine As1 and ΔAs2 to resist residual moment: ΔM = MEd - Mref
➔ zie ook vraag 7
4) Some extra constraints on the compressive reinforcement:
- As2 (compressive) is always smaller than As1 (tensile)

Adding compression force on a beam: favourable or not?

Favourable
➔ compression force counteracts the tensile stresses caused by bending moments,
potentially reducing cracking in concrete (since concrete is weak in tension). This
can improve serviceability by limiting crack widths and deflections
➔ ≈ prestressing
Unfavourable
➔ too high compression forces can be negative for the beam especially when its
slenderness is higher.

In ductile design, compressive reinforcement helps prevent brittle failure by balancing the tensile
forces in the reinforcement. In some cases the compressive strength of concrete is already
sufficient to deal with the bending moment and longitudinal forces, so it is not needed.

Effect on shear & struts by compression force

Compression forces tend to increase the shear capacity of a concrete section. A compressive axial
load can enhance the aggregate interlock and the overall cohesion within the shear plane.

Struts in a beam or slab are compression zones that transfer load along diagonal paths (S&T
model). Compression normal forces improve the strut's capacity by reducing tensile stresses that
could otherwise lead to cracking or buckling.

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13. Deflection (H9)
• Explain (curvature, bending stiffness, bilinear method, interpolation)
o How is this deflection practically calculated (bilinear method)?
• Limitations
o Why do we limit?
o How much do we limit? How much deflection is acceptable?
• How can you already make an estimation before designing a beam? (slenderness)

Explain
Deflections can occur in reinforced concrete beams due to loads, creep or shrinkage. To
prevent beams from cracking, deflections must stay within limitations.

Curvature
Curvature χ is a measure of the bending of a structural element, such as a beam or slab, under
load. It is a key factor in determining deflections since deflection is the integral of curvature
over the length of the beam.

In reinforced concrete, curvature depends on the cracking of concrete and the bending
stiffness.

1) UNCRACKED 2) FULLY CRACKED

I = moment of inertia of the uncracked fictious EI = bending stiffness of the cracked fictious
concrete cross-section concrete cross-section
r = the radius of the curvature r = the radius of the curvature

The bending stiffness EI quantifies a section’s resistance to bending under an applied

moment. It changes when a section is cracked or uncracked, which makes it non-linear.

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Bilinear method
The bilinear method consists of the interpolation of the cracked and uncracked deflections of
reinforced concrete. The actual deflection is formulated as:

ug = cracked deflection (NL: subscript g = gescheurd)

uog = uncracked deflection (NL: subscript og = ongescheurd)
ζa = combination factor

Deflections ug and uog

Have the same formula (see beam formulas), except for their bending stiffness.
We calculate these two deflections, while altering their bending stiffnesses.

Important to note is that reinforced concrete is a heterogeneous material (although it acts as a

monolithic element).
𝐸𝑠
➔ Use the equivalence coefficient alpha 𝛼 = so the steel area is expressed as
𝐸𝑐
alpha times the concrete area: 𝐴𝑠 = 𝛼 ∗ 𝐴𝑠
➔ alpha = 15 for long-term loads

This corrected steel area must be considered in the calculation of the moment of inertia 𝐼𝑔 and
𝐼𝑜𝑔 around the centre of gravity (Steiner formula is used, see exercises, not important).

If these moments are calculated, the deflection for every load can be determined, as well as
load combinations in the Quasi-Permanent state.

Combination factor ζa

With bèta factors taking adhesion and load duration into account.
MCr = moment of cracking
Mk,crit = max bending moment in SLS

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Limitations of deflection a (or u)
Limitations are necessary:
➔ usage and appearance (safety feeling) although the strength stays sufficient
➔ excessive vibrations (safety feeling)
➔ accumulation of water on a concrete roof
➔ damage to finishings as walls, doors, floor finishings

In general use and for a safe-looking appearance (Q_P combination in SLS)

𝑙
- 𝑎 ≤ 250 for spans
𝑙
- 𝑎≤ for cantilevers
125

To prevent damage when new elements are added, the additional deformation is:
𝑙
- ∆𝑎 ≤ 500 for spans
𝑙
- ∆𝑎 ≤ for cantilevers
250

Beam dimension estimation

To avoid the calculation of the deflection (complex):
𝑙
➔ limit the slenderness = span to depth ratio 𝑑
➔ the higher the slenderness ratio, the higher the deflections

Ranges between 6 and 30 for numerous applications (cantilever, beam, slab) and is around
16-20 for normal reinforced beams. It depends on the amount of reinforcement provided.

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14. Discontinuity areas (H10)
• Explain
• Explain the strut-and-tie model.
o Practical calculation?
• Why are nodes important, what happens there? Discuss CTT/ CCC/ CCT)

Discontinuity areas
Discontinuity areas are areas where a disruption of the linear stress state occurs. For example,
with a change in geometry (openings, footings, connection elements...) or around concentrated
loads. These D-areas – D standing for ‘discontinuity’ are different from the “normal” B-areas
where the “Navier-Bernoulli-hypothesis" apply.

There are 3 types of D-areas

1) Geometric discontinuities
Ex. cutouts, footings, frame corners, recess (NL: uitsparing)
➔ according to St. Venant, the length of the D-area = the height of the element

2) Static discontinuities
Applied forces create D-areas at the supports

3) Combination geometric and static

Uncracked: calculate stress state using finite element method (not treated)
Cracked: strut-and-tie models

Strut-and-tie model
If an element has a significant higher height than its span (ℎ > 0,5𝑙), the stress trajectories
are not the same as in a simple beam.

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In these elements, bending formulas do not apply because D-areas are formed. The applied
load(s) cause stresses, guiding thrust forces (spatkrachten) and compression struts
(drukschoren). We visualize and calculate this behaviour by using a strut-and-tie model. The
ties (steel) retrieve the thrust forces while the concrete retrieves the compression struts,
working together like a truss.

The model represents the force trajectories within the reinforced concrete element. If designed
well they describe the complex behaviour inside the elements in an easy (ready-to-design)
way.
Calculating according to Ritter or with sections method. (cfr. statica)

Nodes
Forces converge in nodes and are transferred further through. The nodes represent the points
in our element where important internal stresses occur. In these nodes the equilibrium is
ensured (sum of all forces in all directions is 0). There are two types of nodes:

1) Smeared nodes 2) Singular nodes

divide forces over a region in the where the forces are
element acting/applied/concentrated

Singular nodes can be further divided into categories:

CCC CCT CTT

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15. Prestressed concrete (H11)
• How does it work? Explain the concept.
o What is the difference with reinforced concrete?
o Advantages and disadvantages
o Discuss the two prestressing techniques: pretensioning and posttensioning.
o design in ULS or SLS? (SLS, why?)
• Can we use normal reinforcement steel for PC?

Concept
Prestressed concrete adds additional compression on an element and it anticipates the tension
that will occur once it is put to service. This way it is already prepared for the tension it will
undergo, reducing the risks of cracking and fracture. You add a bending moment in the
opposite direction that precedes the bending moment that will eventually be implemented.

In a beam for example, all the concrete below the neutral axis contributes only to its own
deadweight (and it serves as a connector between the compression zone and the re-bars).

By adding prestress to the beam, you add an acting stress over the cross section reducing the
tensile stress, which helps to utilize the materials better: stress block shifts to the positive
compressive side = favourable for concrete.

Differences
Biggest differences with reinforced concrete:
1. In reinforced concrete the concrete in the tensile zone: deadload only. Whilst in the
prestressed concrete it contributes because of the stress-shift.
2. Prestressed concrete is uncracked in the SLS (in reinforced concrete sections are
typically cracked).
3. Because of “2.” the stiffness of prestressed concrete is higher than reinforced concrete.

Advantages
- high quality materials → limit the amount of material consumption
- we use the full concrete compression capabilities
- it is possible to make more slender/more aesthetic concrete elements
- we can adjust deformations with the choice of our tension tendon profile
- shear strength is higher

Disadvantages
- High cost (we have to work with high quality materials and more complex infrastructure)
- Very precise tensioning: complex procedure

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Post-tensioning
The tension is applied after the concrete is hardened. Post-tensioning provides more flexibility
on site. Larger spans and shapes can be made.

Pre-tensioning
Steel tendons (wires or strands) are tensioned before the concrete is cast.

Design in ULS or SLS?

Prestressed concrete is primarily designed to minimize cracking and control deflections under
service loads, ensuring the structure remains functional, aesthetically pleasing, and durable
over its lifespan. Serviceability concerns dominate the design, making SLS critical.

Long-term phenomena such as creep, shrinkage, and fatigue are more critical in the
serviceability stage. Addressing these in the SLS ensures the structure performs well under
everyday conditions. ULS check is still required because it has to be enough to bare extreme
loads.

Can we use normal reinforcement steel?

No, we have to use high-strength steel with high quality to ensure its resistance against high
tensile forces and fatigue. It also has a better resistance against prestress losses than normal
reinforcement steel

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