● Soma or cell body - contains the nucleus, nucleolus,

numerous different organelles, surrounding cytoplasm

[LBOBIO7] LE4_Photomicrographs
or perikaryon
○ Perikaryon/soma
TOPIC 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM / NERVOUS TISSUE ○ With basophilic cytoplasmic materials, the
Nissl bodies
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - BRAIN & SPINAL CORD ● Dendrites → Form dendritic tree
> Protective Layers of CNS
○ Short & numerous branching processes
● Bones, connective tissue layers, and a watery
○ Transmit impulses toward the cell body
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) → surround and protect CNS
○ Extensions of the soma specialized for
● Meninges - connective tissue; three layers
incoming signals
○ Dura mater - outermost meningeal layer
● Axon - Single, thin, long process
■ tough, strong, and thick layer
○ Transmits impulses away from the cell
■ dense connective tissue fibers
body
■ External surface of CNS
○ Extension of the soma specialized for
○ Arachnoid mater - more delicate
outgoing signals
■ Surround external surface of CNS
○ The diameter is constant along its length
○ Pia mater - innermost meningeal layer
○ Exhibit a bidirectional transport
■ numerous blood vessels
■ Movement in axons is called
■ adheres directly to the surfaces of
anterograde transport. Kinesin
the brain and spinal cord.
(motor protein)
> Cerebrospinal Fluid
■ material carried from the axon
● clear, colorless fluid; cushions the brain and spinal
terminals and dendrites toward
cord
the neurons is called retrograde
○ protective buoyancy from physical injuries
transport. Dynein (motor protein)
○ with Na+, K+, and Cl- ions → needed for
○ Two sections:
neuronal functions
■ Axon hillock (without Nissl
● produced by the Choroid plexuses
bodies) - part of the soma
○ Majority produced in lateral ventricles
connected to axon
○ small, vascular extensions of dilated and
■ Axon proper - main trunk
fenestrated capillaries that penetrate the
● May have branches,
interior of brain ventricles
collaterals, telodendria
○ blood that is selectively filtered through the
● Terminal end swellings -
cells of the choroid plexus forms the CSF
terminal boutons - sending
● circulates in the
information across the
○ ventricles, outer surface of brain and spinal
synapse (gap)
cord, subarachnoid space, central canal of
● Buttons en passant -
spinal cord
swellings along the axon
● important for homeostasis and brain metabolism
● Neuroglia - surround neurons; smaller and more
○ brings nutrients to nourish brain cells,
numerous; supportive cells
○ removes metabolites that enter the CSF from
the brain cells
TYPES OF NEURONS IN THE CNS - BASED ON PROCESSES
○ provides an optimal chemical environment for
neuronal functions and impulse conduction.
● after circulation, CSF is reabsorbed from the
arachnoid space via the arachnoid villi into venous
blood At the superior sagittal sinus (a vein that
drains the brain)
○ AV - small, thin-walled arachnoid extensions
○ penetrate the dura mater and project into the
venous sinuses located between the
periosteal and meningeal layers of dura mater

MORPHOLOGY OF A TYPICAL NEURON 1. Multipolar neurons

● stimulus from the neurons → activation of muscle ● Most common type
functions or glandular secretions (endocrine or ● Include all motor neurons and interneurons
exocrine). ● Numerous branched dendrites project on
one side & a single axon on the opposite site
> Neurons - structural and functional cells of nervous tissue 2. Bipolar Neurons
● Sensory neurons
 ○ retina of the eye
○ in hearing and equilibrium region MYELIN SHEATH AND MYELINATION OF AXONS
organs of the inner ear ● Myelin sheath - surround the axons
○ olfactory epithelium of nose ○ Specialized cells wrapped around axons
● Single dendrite & single axon ○ lipid-rich, insulating sheath
3. Unipolar Neurons ○ Myelinated by Oligodendrocytes.
● One axon process ● Schmidt-Lanterman incisures/cleft - small islands of
● Sensory neurons Schwann cell cytoplasm between the myelin
● Location: numerous dorsal root ganglia of membranes that were not squeezed out during the
spinal nerves and cranial nerve ganglia myelination process
○ Ganglia - collection of neurons ● Nodes of Ranvier - areas without myelin sheath /
surrounded by their supportive cells gaps in myelin sheath
○ can be either sensory or motor. ● Schawann cells - surround the axons in the
Peripheral nervous system
○ Myelinate the axons
○ envelope the unmyelinated axons with their
cytoplasm
○ each Schwann cell cytoplasm can envelope
numerous unmyelinated axon
■ Unmyelinated axons enveloped by
Schwann cells do not show nodes
of Ranvier
■ Surround peripheral nerves in the
autonomic nervous system

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF NEURONS GRAY & WHITE MATTER

1. Based on Function ● Gray matter
○ consists of neurons, their dendrites &
neuroglia
○ represents the site of synapses between a
multitude of neurons and dendrites
○ forms the outer surface of the brain
(cerebrum) and cerebellum
○ Neuropil - contains a meshwork of neural
tissues
● White matter
○ devoid of neuronal cell bodies
○ consists primarily of myelinated axons
○ Myelin sheaths → white color
- Sensory = afferent ‘ motor = efferent
SYNAPSES
2. Based on Cell Size ● specialized sites for chemical or electrical transmission
○ communication between neurons,
interneurons, and effector cells
● presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell - transmission of
impulse (Unidirectionally)
○ Axodendritic - synapses that occur between
axons and dendrites
3. Based on the Neurotransmitter released: ○ Axosomatic - between axon and neuron cells
body
○ Axoaxonic - between axons
● Typical synapse -
○ presynaptic membrane, a synaptic cleft, and a
postsynaptic membrane.
● Most synapses in mammals release chemical
neurotransmitters
● Postsynaptic membrane → excitatory response or
inhibitory response
 ○ synapses regulate neuronal activity in the ● Function - surround and form the insulating,
nervous system by inducing either excitatory lipid-rich myelin sheaths around the larger axons.
or inhibitory effects on the target cells ○ protect axons
○ Maintain proper ionic environment for
SUPPORTING CELLS OF THE CNS impulse conduction and propagation
● Neuroglia - highly branched, supportive, nonneuronal ● Myelinates a portion of a single axon.
cells in the CNS ○ Single Schwann cell can surround its
○ surround the neurons, their axons, and cytoplasm with numerous unmyelinated
dendrites axons.
● Do not become stimulated or conduct impulses ● Nodes of Ranvier - nodal gaps in myelin sheaths
○ Different from neurons ○ significantly accelerate the conduction of
○ More neuroglial cells than neurons in CNS nerve impulses (action potentials) along the
● Four types of neuroglial cells axons
○ Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ○ Saltatory conduction - AP jumps from node
ependymal cells to node → fast impulse propagation along
● Functions: myelinated axons
○ Structural support of neurons ● Internode/internodal segment - length of axon covered
○ Nutritional support of the neurons by myelin s.
○ Electrical insulation ● Small unmyelinated axons - slower conduction of
○ Enhancement of impulse conduction nerves impulses
velocity along the axons ○ Impulse travels entire length of the axon
○ Reduced conduction efficiency and velocity of
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM impulse
● neurons, supportive cells, nerves, and axons that are ○ the rate of impulse conduction depends
located outside of the CNS directly on the axon size and the myelin
○ cranial nerves from the brain sheath.
○ spinal nerves from the spinal cord > The Satellite cells
○ associated ganglia ● Small flare cells → surround neurons of PNS ganglia
● Ganglia (ganglion) - small accumulations of neurons ● Peripheral ganglia - located parallel to the vertebral
and their supportive glial cells column near the junction of the dorsal and ventral
○ surrounded by a CT capsule. roots of the spinal nerves and near visceral organs
● Nerves: Sensory & Motor Axons ● Functions:
● Neurons of peripheral nerves - within the CNS or ○ provide structural support for the neurons,
outside of the CNS in different ganglia insulate them
● neurovascular bundle - Nerves, arteries, veins, and ○ regulate the exchange of different metabolic
lymphatic vessels substances between the neurons and the
interstitial fluid.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE LAYERS THE PNS
1. Epineurium - outermost connective tissue layer > Dorsal Root Ganglia
● Strong fibrous sheath ● Situated on dorsal nerve roots that join the spinal
● Bind all fascicles (bundles) together cord
● Dense irregular connective tissue; ● Sensory (round) unipolar neurons constitute the
completely surround peripheral nerve ganglia
2. Perineurium ● Bundles of sensory nerve fibers or axons pass
● Extended into the nerve between the unipolar neurons
● subdivides/surrounds one or more nerve ● Connective tissue capsule encloses the ganglia and
fascicles merges with the epineurium of the peripheral nerve
● Joined together by tight junctions ● Unipolar neurons are surrounded by satellite cells,
● Forms the blood-nerve barrier - selective which are enclosed by connective tissue capsule cells
metabolically active diffusion barrier
3. Endoneurium
● Loose vascular connective tissue TOPIC 2: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Thin reticular fibers > Neuroendocrine System & Sense Organs =
● Surround myelinated or cluster of Photomicrographs
unmyelinated axons associated with 1. Pituitary Gland & hypothalamus
Schwann cells a. Pituitary gland - pars distalis
2. Adrenal glands
SUPPORTING CELLS OF THE PNS 3. Thyroid
> The Schwann Cells 4. Parathyroid
 5. Islet of Langerhans - Pancreas

OVERVIEW OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

● Cells, tissues & organs → Production of hormones
● Endocrine glands
○ Ductless - without excretory ducts
○ Interstitial connective tissue → Release
products directly into blood or lymph
capillaries
○ Releases hormones directly to the
bloodstream and targets specific parts of the
body
■ Activate enzymes
■ Result in a certain cellular event
● Endocrine gland → hormone → bloodstream → target ● Different types of hormones:
organs → hormone-receptor complex → activation of ○ polypeptides, proteins, steroids, amino acid
enzymes or cellular events → activation of enzymes or derivatives, and catecholamines
cellular events ○ Bind to Hormone receptors = specific for
certain hormones

> Different types of hormone receptors

● On the cells membrane
○ Non Steroid receptors
○ Protein and peptide hormones = cannot
penetrate cell membrane
○ produces molecules called second
messengers → cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP)
○ cAMP activates hormone specific response

● On Intercellular / in the nucleus of targeted cells

○ Activated by lipid soluble hormones
■ can penetrate the cellular & nuclear
> Two types of endocrine glands / organs membranes
● Organs with endocrine cells / tissue ○ Steroid and thyroid hormones → receptor
(endocrine-exocrine organs): ○ hormone–receptor complex enters the
○ Pancreas nucleus and binds to DNA sequence →
○ Kidneys activates or inhibits specific genes
○ Reproductive organs - testis and ovary ■ Activated genes → Synthesis of
○ Placents mRNA → cytoplasm →
○ G.I tract hormone-specific proteins + induce
● Complete endocrine organs / glands (endocrine only) cellular changes
○ Hypophysis or pituitary gland - close to ○ Directly influence genes expression of target
diencephalon cell
○ Thyroid gland - close to larynx ■ No second messenger
○ Parathyroid glands - associated with thyroid
○ Adrenal (Suprarenal) glands - above the THE PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS)
kidneys I. Development of the Pituitary Gland (Reading
● Individual endocrine cells - part of diffuse Assignment)
neuroendocrine system (DNES). ● Controlled by the hypothalamus (brain)
● Regulatory hormones transported to pituitary gland

> Two Major Parts = Dual embryologic origin

● Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) - cellular or
glandular portion
○ pharyngeal roof (oral cavity / stomodeum) -
derived from GI tract
○ Rathke’s pouch (hypophyseal pouch) - will
form from stomodeum
 ○ Upward growth cystic follicles with cuboidal
● Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) - neural epithelium
portion ○ Follicles lined with basophils
○ diencephalon - derived from nervous system ● What is the content of the colloid ?
○ Downward growth ● Well developed in lower vertebrates -
fish & amphibians ‘
● Attached to the hypothalamus through a short stalk,
● Produce Melanocyte-stimulating
the infundibulum hormone (MSH)
○ Neurons in hypothalamus - control release of
hormones from adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
○ Secrete hormones → transported and stored Median ● based of the hypothalamus
in neurohypophysis eminence ● Made of
● Resting in the stella turcica (sphenoid bone in skull) ○ axon terminals of
after development hypothalamic neurons that
○ inferior to the hypothalamus at the base of the secrete releasing and
brain. inhibiting hormones.’
○ Glial cells = support
○ Blood vessels =
> Two Major Section of the Hypophysis hypophyseal hormones
1. Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) ○ ECM
a. Pars distalis - surrounds / holds the
Infundibulum ● Pituitary or neural stalk
infundibulum ● unmyelinated axons
b. Pars tuberalis ○ Extend from neurons in
c. Pars intermedia hypothalamus
2. Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) ○ Direct neural connection
a. Median eminence - connection to the Pars nervosa ● Large portion of neurohypophysis
hypothalamus ● Made of Unmyelinated axons
b. Infundibulum ○ contains the terminal ends of
c. Pars nervosa - major part / largest unmyelinated axons -
storage of hormones that
secreted by hypothalamus
Part Characteristics neurons
Adenohypophysis ● Pituicytes - nonsecretory; surround
the axons
Pars distalis ● Largest part of hypophysis ○ Supporting role
● Chromophobe cells (lighter staining) ○ Variable cell shape & size
● Chromophil cells: ○ Red staining nuclei
○ Acidophils (alpha ● Herring bodies - irregular shape ; red
cells)(reddish) staining
■ Sinusoidal capillary ● Supplied by Blood vessels
(surrounds) ○ Capillaries (fenestrated)
○ Basophils (beta ● Surrounded by connective tissue
cells)(bluish) capsule
■ Variable cell shape
● Supplied by Blood vessels ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
○ Sinusoidal Capillaries Adenohypophysis
● Surrounded by connective tissue ● Connected to the hypothalamus via a vascular
capsule
network
Pars tuberalis ● surrounds the neural stalk ● Superior hypophyseal arteries
(infundibulum) ○ From Internal carotid artery
● Made of thin glandular cells
○ Supply → pars tuberalis, median eminence,
○ columnar / cuboidal epithelial
cells and infundibulum
○ Fibroblasts - CT cells ○ Forms primary capillary plexus
○ Capillaries - highly vascular) ■ Loc: median eminence
Pars ● Thin cell layer between the pars ● Directly influenced by secretory neurons in
intermedia distalis and the neurohypophysis hypothalamus
● Rudimentary in humans - remnant of ○ Axons → fenestrated capillaries → release
Rathke's pouch hormones → priamry capillary plexus
○ fully developed in other ● Hypophyseal portal venules → drain the primary
mammals capillary plexus into the hypophyseal portal veins
● Normally contains colloid-filled
○ deliver blood w/ hormones → secondary
vesicles
● Contains follicles and Colloid-filled capillary plexus
 ○ Venules = hypothalamohypophyseal portal ■ Somatotropin - human growth
system (primary cp - secondary cp) hormone (GH)
○ Capillaries - fenestrated for efficient transport ■ Prolactin - release of milk
● Secondary capillary plexus - surrounds cells in pars ○ Inhibitory hormones
distalis ■ Somatostatin - inhibits GH
■ Dopamine - inhibits prolactin
Cells of Adenohypophysis (prolactin-inhibiting hormone)
● Chromophobes ● Hypothalamohypophyseal portal system
○ pale-staining ○ primary capillary plexus (median eminence)
○ cells that depleted their hormones or → second capillary plexus (adenohypophysis)
undifferentiated stem cells ○ @ adenohypophysis → hormones bind to
○ Do not have granules; indistinct cell receptors → stimulation:
boundaries ■ Secrete/release specific hormones
● Chromophils ■ Inhibit function
○ acidophils and basophils > Neurohypophysis
■ Acidophils (red staining) - ● Does not secrete hormones
somatotrophs and lactotrophs ● Only stores & releases hormones
(mammotrophs) ○ Oxytocin
■ Basophils (blue staining) - ○ Vasopressin - antidiuretic hormone
gonadotrophs, thyrotrophs, and ■ Synthesized by neurons in
corticotrophs. paraventricular nuclei and
● Feedback mechanisms - after product secretion supraoptic nuclei (hypothalamus)
○ controls the synthesis and further release of ● Hormones transported along unmyelinated axons
hormones ● Stored - as Herring bodies
○ Direct action on cells in adenohypophysis ○ tiny dilations in the axon terminals of the
and/or neurons neurohypophysis
● Released - par nervosa (capillaries)
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
Neurohypophysis HORMONES OF ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
● direct neural connection with the brain; no neurons 1. ACIDOPHILS
or hormone-producing cells ● Somatotropin (growth hormone; GH) ;’ released by
● neurons (cell bodies) of axons @ supraoptic and Somatorophs (pituitary gland)
paraventricular nuclei ○ Target = general growth of body
● Hypothalamohypophyseal tract - unmyelinated ○ Stimulates cellular metabolism
axons that extend from the hypothalamus into the ○ Amino acid uptake
neurohypophysis ○ Protein synthesis
● Function: storage site for neuroendocrine secretions ○ Stimulates the liver to produce
synthesized in and transported from the supraoptic somatomedins
and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. ■ insulin-like growth factor 1
○ released hormones bind to the carrier (IGF-1).
glycoprotein neurophysin ○ Incre ase proliferation of cartilage cells
○ Transported by axonal transport to epiphyseal plates → growing long bones
neurohypophysis ○ Increase growth of skeletal muscles
○ Hormones stored as herring bodies in the ○ Adipose cells → increased release of fatty
distended terminal end of axons acids (energy productiton)
● Hormones released when needed → pars nervosa ● Somatostatin - inhibitory hormone
(fenestrated capillaries) ○ GH inhibiting hormones
● Prolactin - lactogenic hormones
○ Produced by mammotrophs
HORMONES OF HYPOPHYSIS
● Hormones produced by neurons in the hypothalamus ○ stimulates the development of mammary
control the synthesis and release of six specific glands (pregnancy)
hormones from the adenohypophysis ○ Stimulates secretion of nutrients & milk
● Releasing hormones ← produced by the hypothalamic production
neurons ■ After birth and during lactation
○ Thyrotropin-releasing hormone ● Dopamine - inhibitory hormone
○ Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, ○ inhibits prolactin release
○ Corticotropin-releasing hormone
○ Growth hormone–releasing hormone. 2. BASOPHILS
○ Growth hormones
● Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin or TSH) 2. ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (VASOPRESSIN)
← secrets by Thyrotrophs ● increase water permeability in the distal convoluted
○ stimulates follicular cells (thyroid gland) → tubules and collecting ducts (kidney)
synthesize & secrete thyroglobulin ○ Creates more urine ← More water
○ production & release of thyroid hormones reabsorbed from the filtrate into the
○ stimulates prolactin release interstitium & retained in body
● Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) ← ● osmoreceptor cells (hypothalamus) → activate
gonadotrophs release of ADH from the neurons in neurohypophysis
○ growth and maturation of ovarian follicles ○ Stimulated by increase in blood tonicity or a
○ Release of estrogen by developing follicles decrease in blood volume
○ Males - promotes spermatogenesis; ● Increased water retention/absorption → increases fluid
secretion of androgen-binding protein volume → restores the osmotic balance of body fluids.
■ Maintains testosterone concentration
in ST
● Luteinizing hormone (LH) ← gonadotrophs THE THYROID GLAND
○ + FSH → induces ovulation ● Location - below the larynx; at anterior neck
○ final maturation of ovarian follicles ○ Close to the thyroid cartilage
○ formation of the corpus luteum after ● Made up of right and left lobes connected by an
ovulation isthmus
○ secretion of estrogen and progesterone from ● Made up of follicles - structural and functional units of
the corpus luteum thyroid gland
○ Males - maintains & stimulates the interstitial ○ Epithelial cells arranged into spherical
cells (of Leydig) → produce testosterone structures
■ interstitial cell–stimulating ○ Store thyroid hormones
hormone (ICSH). ○ Surrounded by capillary network
● Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) ← ■ For entrance of thyroid hormones
Corticotrophs into blood stream
○ stimulates cells in adrenal cortex ● Follicular epithelium - simple squamous to low
■ zona fasciculata and zona reticularis columnar cells; usually cuboidal (simple cuboidal);
(adrenal cortex). ○ Depends on activity
○ synthesize and release glucocorticoids and ○ active follicles - cuboidal
steroids (adenal androgens) ○ less active/inactive - flattened/ squamous
● Follicel cells or principal cells
3. PARS INTERMEDIA ○ Forms the follicular epithelium
● Developed in lower vertebrates (amphibians and ○ Synthesizes, releases & stores products of
fishes) the thyroid gland in the lumen of the follicles
● Rudimentary - humans and most mammals ■ colloid and thyroid hormones
● Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) ○ Product → Gelatinous colloid - made by
○ increases skin pigmentation - dispersion of follicle cells
melanin granules. In ● Colloid - made of thyroglobulin
○ inactive iodinated glycoprotein compound
HORMONES OF/ FROM NEUROHYPOPHYSIS for storage of the thyroid hormones
● synthesized - supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei ○ Does not have hormonal activity by itself
of the hypothalamus ○ Acidophilic (staining)
● Parafollicular cells (C cells)
1. OXYTOCIN ○ larger and pale staining; and oval shaped
● Release stimulateed by vaginal and cervical distension ○ Locations:
○ Before birth & nursing infant ■ peripherally in the follicular
● targets the smooth muscles of the pregnant uterus epithelium
● Labor → Childbirth (parturition) ■ Within the follicle basal lamina
○ nduces strong contractions of smooth ■ As clusters between follicular cells.
muscles in the uterus ○ Synthesize & secrete Calcitonin
● Milk ejection reflex - stimulated by infant to nipple
○ Nipple → afferent impulse → hypothalamus THYROID HORMONES
(neurons) → oxytocin release > Formation of Hormones
○ Oxytocin → contraction of myoepithelial cells ● produced by follicular cells
around alveoli & ducts in mammary glands → ○ controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone
milk ejection (excretory ducts) (TSH)
○ stimulated by low levels of thyroid hormones
 ● Active thyroid hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and ○ clear parts = adipocytes
thyroxine (T4) / tetraiodothyronine
○ iodide essential for production PARATHYROID HORMONES
● TSH stimulated -> TSH release -> Follicular cells Parathyroid hormone → (parathormone)
synthesize thyroglobulin & take up iodide from blood ● Released by chief cells
via iodide pump -> iodide oxidized to iodine -> ● Maintain proper calcium and phosphate levels in
transported to lumen with colloid material extracellular fluids
● In lumen - iodine combines with tyrosine groups -> ● elevate calcium levels in blood
iodinated thyroglobulin -> produce T3 and T4 ● Antagonistic to calcitonin produced by parafollicular
○ Inactive - bound cells
○ TSH stimulated -> release of thyroid ● Release stimulates activity of osteoclasts
hormones -> systemic circulation ○ indirectly activated by osteoblasts;
receptors only on osteoprogenitor,
> Release of Hormones osteoblasts & osteocytes
● endocytosis - uptake of thyroglobulin by follicular cells ○ Activation of osteoclast-osteoblast/
● lysosomal proteases —> hydrolysis of iodinated RANK-RANKL pathway —> induces
thyroglobulin differentiation, proliferation and osteoclast
● release of principal thyroid hormones. functions
○ Increased bone resorption, release of calcium
& phosphate to blood stream
THE PARATHYROID GLAND ○ calcium concentration increases ->
parathyroid hormone production suppressed
● Kidneys & Intestines -increased tubular reabsorption
of calcium from glomerular filtrate
○ increased elimination of phosphate, sodium &
potassium ions into urine
○ Produce hormone calcitriol - Vitamin D
(active form)
■ increases calcium absorption from
GI tract
● Location - posterior surface of thyroid gland ● Release of parathyroid hormone depends on blood
○ Superior & inferior pole of each lobe calcium levels
● Generally four in mammals ○ Regulated by simple feedback mechanism
○ Two on each side
● Small oval glands located on the surface of thyroid THE ADRENAL GLAND / SUPRARENAL GLANDS
● Endocrine organs
gland
● Location - near the superior pole of each kidney
○ cells arrangement - cords or clumps; no
● Capsulated - dense irregular connective tissue
specific arrangement
capsule
■ no cavity in the middle
○ embedded in the adipose tissue around the
■ does not form tissue
kidneys.
○ surrounded by rich capillary network
● Secretory portion:
○ normally without follicles
○ Outer cortex
● Separated from thyroid gland by a connective tissue
○ Inner medulla
capsule

> Secretory portion of Adrenal Gland

Two types of cells in Parathyroid Gland
● Outer Adrenal Cortex - 3 concentric zones
1. Principal / Chief Cells
○ Zona glomerulosa - thin zone
● most numerous cells
■ inferior to the adrenal gland capsule
● place, slightly acidophilic cytoplasm
■ consists of cells arranged in small
2. Oxyphil cells
clumps / ovoid groups
● larger than the principal (chief cells)
■ surrounded by sinusoidal capillaries
● less numerous
○ Zona fasciculata - intermediate
● single cells or in small groups.
■ thickest zone
● Stain deeply acidophilic (eosinophilic) - acidophilic
■ vertical columns of one-cell
cytoplasm
thickness adjacent to straight
- Occasionally small colloid-filled follicles may be seen
capillaries (radial plates)
■ pale-staining cells - numerous lipid
- young or old parathyroid ?
droplets
● Oxyphil cells & Adipocytes increase with age
 ■ sinusoidal capillaries between ■ decreasing antibody production and
columns suppressing tissue response to injury
○ Zona reticularis - innermost zone ● Z. Reticularis -> sex steroids
■ adjacent to the adrenal medulla ○ weak androgens -> testosterone and estrogen
■ Cells arranged in anastomosing ○ influence the development of secondary sex
cords or clumps characteristics
○ Cells of cortex produce steroid hormones: ● Regulated by feedback control from the pituitary
■ mineralocorticoids, gland and ACTH (pituitary gland hormone)
glucocorticoids, and sex
hormones. HORMONES OF ADRENAL GLAND MEDULLA
● controlled by hypothalamus - sympathetic nervous
● Inner Adrenal Medulla - center of gland system
○ Cells arranged in small cords or clumps ● Chromaffin cells
○ Chromaffin cells = Medullary Cells ○ stain - chromium salts
■ modified postganglionic sympathetic ○ Origin - neural crest (like postganglionic
neurons neurons & parasympathetic ganglia)
■ axons and dendrites lost during ○ Innervated & activated by preganglionic
development - became secretory sympathetic axons
cells ○ response to fear / acute emotional stress
■ secretory cells - synthesize and ■ release catecholamines -
secrete catecholamines (primarily epinephrine and norepinephrine
epinephrine and norepinephrine) ■ “fight or flight” - increased heart rate,
○ Cells innervated by preganglionic axons of respiratory rat, increased cardiac
the sympathetic neurons output and blood flow, surge of
○ Ganglion cells present glucose into blood (energy)
■ maximal use of energy and physical
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL GLAND CORTEX effort to overcome stress
● controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
○ anterior pituitary gland hormone HORMONES RELEASED FROM EACH LAYER - SUMMARY
● cells synthesize and release three types of steroids -
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens

● Z. Glomerulosa -> mineralocorticoid aldosterone

○ initiated by renin-angiotensin pathway
(kidneys)
○ Stimulated by - Decreased arterial blood
pressure & low sodium levels in filtrate
Layer Hormones Released Example
○ Detected by juxtaglomerular apparatus
○ Aldosterone - fluid and electrolyte balance Z. Glomerulosa Mineralocorticoids Aldosterone
■ target- distal convoluted tubules Z. Fasciculata Glucocorticoids Cortisol
(kidneys) Corticosterone
Cortisone
■ increases sodium reabsorption from
glomerular filtrate Z. Reticularis Androgens Dehydroepiandroste
■ increases potassium excretion to rone (DHEA)
urine Inner Medulla Catecholamines Epinephrine
■ restoration of blood pressure, (Adrenaline)
Norepinephrine
volume and electrolyte balance
decreases
● Z. Fasciculata -> glucocorticoids
PANCREAS - ISLET OF LANGERHANS
○ cortisol and cortisone
● with exocrine and endocrine functions
○ response to stress - stimulate protein, fat 7
carbohydrate metabolism
EXOCRINE PANCREAS
■ increase blood glucose
● exocrine ducts without striated ducts
concentration
○ lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
○ Glucocorticoids (cortisol) - suppress immune
○ surrounded by connective tissue
system
● serous, compound acinar gland
■ anti-inflammatory effect = reduce the
○ glandular epithelium with certain arrangement
number of circulating lymphocytes
○ Zymogenic cells - pyramid-shaped;
protein-secreting
● Secretory acini ○ Enterokinase - from intestinal mucosa
○ Subdivided into lobules ■ converts trypsinogen → trypsin
○ Bound by loose connective tissue ■ trypsin → inactive pancreatic
● Pancreatic acinar and centro-acinar cells enzymes → active digestive
○ pyramid-shaped acinar cells enzymes in chyme.
○ Apices with secretory granules
○ Granules - precursors pancreatic digestive ENDOCRINE PANCREAS - ISLET OF LANGERHANS /
enzymes → secreted into the intestinal lumen PANCREATIC ISLETS
via excretory duct (inactive form). ● pale staining
● Excretory ducts - ● compact clusters of endocrine cells (cord or clumps)
○ Start from centroacinar cells → cells of short ● highly vascularized - network of capillaries
intercalated ducts → Intralobular ducts (in (fenestrated)
connective tissue) → interlobular ducts → ○ Hormones produced and transported from
Main pancreatic duct blood vessels
■ Epithelium becomes taller and ● connective tissue capsule
stratified as ducts increase in size ○ fine fibers - reticular connective tissue
○ do not exhibit striations, no striated ducts, no
myoepithelial cells HORMONES OF THE ENDOCRINE PANCREAS
● Two major types of cells
HORMONES OF EXOCRINE PANCREAS Description Alpha Cells Beta Cells
● Secretions regulated by hormones from General - 20% of islets - 70%; most numerous
enteroendocrine (DNES) cells - cytoplasm stains pink - cytoplasm stains blue
○ (duodenal mucosa → Bloodstream) Location - Islet periphery - centrally located
● Intestinal principal hormones - secretin & Hormone - glucagon - insulin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
Function - low blood glucose levels - elevated blood glucose
→ secretes glucagon levels → secretes insulin
● Secretin - elevates blood glucose - lowers blood glucose
○ Stimulated by acidic chyme in small intestine levels: levels:
→ secretin → exocrine cells produce more - accelerates the - accelerates
watery fluid rich in sodium bicarbonate ions. conversion of glycogen, transmembrane transport
○ Fluid produced by centroacinar cells & amino acids, and fatty of glucose into
intercalated duct cells acids in the liver cells into hepatocytes, muscle cells,
glucose → bloodstream. and adipocytes.
○ Bicarbonate fluid → neutralizes: - accelerates conversion of
■ neutralizes the acidic chyme glucose into glycogen in
■ stops the action of the proteolytic hepatocytes.
enzyme pepsin secreted by gastric
glands in the stomach ● Delta (D) cells
■ creates a neutral environment in the ○ present in the islets; least abundant
duodenum for the digestive ○ variable cell shape; occur anywhere in islet
pancreatic enzymes. ○ Hormone - somatostatin.
○ Somatostatin → decreases and inhibits
● Cholecystokinin (CCK) secretory activities of alpha and beta cells
○ Stimulated by fats & proteins in small intestine ■ Local action in islet
→ CCK release → acinar cells secrete ■ inhibits the production of bicarbonate
digestive enzymes and enzymes by the pancreatic
○ Digestive enzymes: exocrine cells
■ Pancreatic amylase - carbohydrate ● Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) cells
digestion ○ Hormone - pancreatic polypeptide
■ Pancreatic lipase - lipid digestion ○ inhibits the production of bile and intestinal
■ Deoxyribonuclease & ribonuclease - motility
nucleic acid digestion ○ inhibits pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate
■ Proteolytic enzymes - trypsinogen, secretions
chymotrypsinogen, and ○ stimulates the gastric chief (zymogen) cells
procarboxypeptidase.

● Pancreatic enzymes
TOPIC 3: URINARY SYSTEM
○ Acinar cells → hormonal stimulation → > Specimens
Inactive form → indirectly activated by 1. Kidney
enterokinase 2. Ureter
 3. Urinary bladder - male ○ Some references, nephron is considered to
4. Urethra male & female be the structural or functional unit of the
kidney.
OVERVIEW OF URINARY SYSTEM
Components:
1. Kidney
2. Urinary tract - where urine passes through after being
produced by the kidney
a. Ureters - one for each kidney
b. Urinary bladder
c. Urethra
General Organization of the Kidney

● Urine is produced in the nephron then directed to the

collecting ducts

1. Nephrons
> Components of a Nephron
● Renal corpuscle
○ Glomerulus - made up of capillaries
Presence of 2 regions: surrounded by a capsule
● Outer cortex / Renal cortex ○ Bowman’s capsule
● Inner medulla or Renal medulla ● Renal Tubule
Includes: ○ Proximal convoluted Tubule - the
- Calyces and Pelvis - sort of funnels collecting one that is connected to the renal
the urine directed to the ureter corpuscle specifically the Bowman’s
capsule
> Renal pyramids ○ Loop of Henle (DL and AL) - made
up of three section: descending
limb, loop of Henle, and ascending
limb
○ Distal convoluted Tubule -
connected to the collecting tubule
which connected it to the collecting
duct
● Collecting tubule
● Collecting duct
○ Papillary ducts of Bellini (most
dinstal portion) - closest to the tip of
- 7-18 renal pyramids in a kidney;Basic structural and
the pyramid / renal pyramid ; large
functional unit of the kidney
portion of the collecting duct
- Made of Millions of nephrons
- Part of renal cortex and renal medulla
> A tubule is relatively smaller than the duct; General flow /
- Renal papilla - the tip/apex of the pyramid where
direction
urine is directed to calyces → renal pelvis → ureter
Renal corpuscle → Proximal convoluted tubule →
- Renal pelvis - main funnel that directs urine to
Descending Limb of LH → Loop of Henle → Ascending
the ureter
Limb of LH → Distal convoluted tubule → collecting tubule
- Calycles - collect urine from renal pyramids;
→ collecting duct → Papillary ducts of Bellini
subfunnels
- Renal column - the division or separation between
> Types of Nephrons
renal pyramids
● Cortical nephron - located in the main
portion of the cortex
> Uriniferous Tubule
● Juxtamedullary nephron - located at the
● Functional unit of the kidney.
junction or boundary of cortex and medulla;
● Made up of a nephron and a collecting duct
closer to the medulla
○ Collecting ducts are shared by several
○ The renal corpuscles and convoluted
nephrons
tubules are located in the cortex
 ○ The loop of Henle are located in Blood will be filtered primarily in glomerular endothelium of
the medulla the capillaries, which is thin, porous (fenestrated), and
permeable to many substances in the blood except to the
2. Collecting duct formed blood elements or large plasma proteins.
● Papillary ducts of Bellini - most distal ↓
portion; located close to the tip of the renal The glomerular basement membrane (Located between the
pyramid (renal papilla) capillary endothelium and the visceral podocytes) is a selective
physical barrier that filters and restricts the movement of
● Medullary Rays (Cortex to Medulla) - straight macromolecules such as albumin from the blood.
portions of nephrons (loop of Henle), collecting ↓
tubules and ducts, and blood vessels. The produced filtrate then enters the capsular (urinary)
space or Bowman’s space located between the parietal and
> Renal Blood Supply: Sequence of Blood Flow visceral cell layers of the glomerular capsule of the renal
● Renal artery → Interlobar artery → Arcuate artery corpuscle.
→ Afferent arteriole → Glomerular capillary ↓
(glomerulus) → Efferent arteriole → vasa recta The filtrate leaves each renal corpuscle at the urinary pole
and peritubular capillary → interlobular vein → where the proximal convoluted tubule originates.
arcuate vein → Interlobar vein → Renal vein
(exits the kidney) Filtration Barrier in Glomerulus
● Efferent arteriole - exits the bowman’s capsule ● Glomerular Capillary Endothelium
● Peritubular capillary - capillary that surrounds the ● Glomerular Basement membrane
renal tubules (convoluted tubules and Loop of Henle) ○ Dense membrane located between the
● Vasa recta - part of peritubular capillary that surrounds capillary endothelium and the visceral
specifically the loop of Henle podocytes
● Will go back to heart through the posterior venca cava ○ It is a selective physical barrier that filters and
restricts the movement of macromolecules
such as albumin from the blood.
○ Nephrin - a transmembrane protein found in
the highly specialized junctional complexes of
semipermeable slit diaphragms between the
individual pedicles of the podocytes.
○ The protein nephrin connects or anchors
firmly with the actin filaments in the adjacent
pedicles of the podocytes forming filtration
slits that act like a fine sieve in the renal
corpuscle.
● Visceral layer of the Bowman capsule, podocytes, and
pedicles.
Part Components ↓
Cortex (C) ● Proximal convoluted tubule Proximal convoluted tobules - reabsorbs ions,w ater &
● Distal convoluted tubule nutrients; remvoes toxins and adjusts filtrate ph
● Peritubular capillaries ↓
● Medullary rays Distal tubule - selectively secrets and absorbs different ions to
Medulla (M) ● Medullary pyramids / Renal lobes maintain blood pH and electrolyte balance
● Loop of Henle ↓
● Collecting ducts Collecting duct - reabsorbs solutes and water from the filtrate
● Vasa recta ↓
● Papilla of Pyramid (P) / Renal Apex - pointed to the Descediong loop of henle - aquaporins allow water to pass
renal papilla (tip pf the pyramid) from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid
○ Renal apex of a medullary pyramid
○ Will go into renal pelvis NEPHRON
● Ureter (U) I. Components of a Nephron
● Renal hilum (H) - entry and exit of vessels, nerves, A. Renal Corpuscle
and ureter, the indentation of the kidney 1. Bowman’s capsule
2. Glomerulus
> Urine Formation / Blood Filtration B. Renal Tubule
Blood flowing through the kidneys will be filtered in renal 1. Proximal Convoluted tubule
corpuscles through the glomerular capillaries. 2. Loop of Henle
↓ 3. Distal COnvoluted Tubule
> Renal Corpuscle ● Urinary pole
A. Bowman’s Capsule ● Lined by simple low columnar-to-cuboidal
● 2 layers: epithelium
○ Parietal layer (SSC) - outer layer of the ● Lining cells with microvilli that form brush
bowman’s capsule; made up of simple borders
squamous epithelium with a basement ● Convoluted part lies in the renal cortex;
membrane connected to the thick descending limb of the
○ Visceral layer (podocytes) - the innermost loop of Henle.
layer surrounding the glomerulus; made up of B. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
Podocytes. ● Vascular pole
■ Pedicels - a foot-like structure of ● With low cuboidal epithelium
podocytes that is used to attach to ● Without brush borders → wider and clearer
the glomerulus or the capillaries lumen
○ Bowman’s space (between layers) - Space ● More basophilic lining cells than of PCT.
between parietal and visceral layer that will ● Form disk of tightly packed columnar cells →
collect the filtrate macula densa
B. Glomerulus C. Loop of Henle
● Components: ● U-shaped epithelial tube
○ Tuft of Capillaries ● With thick and thin portions for the
○ Mesangium / Mesangium Intraglomerular descending and ascending limbs.
cells / mesangial cells - smooth muscles; ● Without brush borders
help out in the movement of the blood ● Transition from low columnar to cuboidal,
squamous (in the loop itself) to cuboidal.
C. Urinary pole - where proximal CT exits. Where the ● Mostly cuboidal cells
filtrate is passing through ● Absence of any blood cells in their lumen.
D. Vascular pole - where the afferent arterioles enter, and
efferent arterioles drain from. Where blood vessels are COLLECTING TUBULES AND DUCTS
passing through. ● Block-like-lining cells have distinct intercellular borders.
● Juxtaglomerular Apparatus ● Cuboidal cells in the smaller tubules; columnar in the
○ Functions in monitoring blood pressure larger ducts.
○ Location: ● Cells appear clear and white
■ Near vascular pole; ● Largest of the collecting ducts are called ducts of
■ Point of contact between DCT and Bellini (DB).
afferent arteriole
○ Components: RENAL PAPILLA TO RENAL PELVIS
■ Juxtaglomerular cells (JG)
■ Macula densa (MD) ● Renal papilla - tip of the renal pyramid
■ Polkissen or Lacis cells ● Calyx - branch of renal pelvis; connects and collects
(extraglomerular mesangial cells) the urine from renal pyramid to the renal pelvis
1. Polkissen or Lacis cells (extraglomerular ● Renal pelvis - main funnel that connects and collects
mesangial cells) urine from the kidney to the ureter.
- Unknown function
- Possible participation in the
renin-angiotensin system
2. Macula densa
- Disk of tightly packed columnar cells
(modified DCT cells).
- Functions in monitoring blood
osmolarity.
3. JG Cells (Juxtaglomerular cells)
- Modified smooth muscle cells
- With secretory structures (PAS+
cytoplasmic granules
- Secrete renin - enzyme involved in A. Renal calyces and Renal Pelvis
cleaving plasma angiotensinogen to ● Wall consist of:
angiotensin I. ○ Mucosa - typical transitional
epithelium
> Renal Tubules ○ Muscularis - meshwork of smooth
A. Proximal Convoluted Tubule muscle
 ○ Adventitia - blends with surrounding
coagulates semen low columnar or
adipose tissue. after ejaculation and cuboidal.
○ Without submucosa prostaglandins. ● The muscularis
○ inner circular
muscle layer
URINARY TRACT ○ outer longitudinal
A. Ureter muscle layer
● Adventitia
● Narrower lumen than the renal pelvis.
● Similar wall structure to the renal pelvis and Prostate gland ● An encapsulated organ
calyces. situated inferior to the
○ Mucosa - transitional epithelium and - produces a thin, neck of the bladder.
lamina propria. Folded if undistended watery, slightly ● Most of the prostate
○ Muscularis - 2-3 smooth muscle acidic fluid, rich in gland consists of
layers. citric acid, prostatic branched tubuloacinar
acid phosphatase, prostatic glands
○ Adventitia - adipose tissue with blood
amylase, and ● Glandular epithelium-
vessels prostate-specific simple cuboidal or
B. Urinary Bladder antigen (PSA). columnar to
● Distensible muscular sac - PSA is a very useful pseudostratified
● Thicker muscularis than ureter diagnostic tool for epithelium.
● Lined with transitional epithelium diagnosing prostatic ● Excretory ducts of the
cancer because its prostatic glands
● Smooth muscles (in bundles) not organized
concentration often resemble the glandular
into layers except at the internal sphincter. increases in the acini, and in the
● Layers blood during terminal portions, the
○ Mucosa malignancy. ductal epithelium is
○ Muscularis - Produces enzyme usually columnar and
○ Serosa fibrinolysin, which stains darker before
C. Urethra (Male Urethra) liquefies the entering the urethra
congealed semen
● Longer than the female urethra
after its ejaculation.
● Can be sectioned into three parts:
○ Prostatic portion - the one that is Bulbourethral gland ● Compound tubuloacinar
close to the accessory glands glands
○ Membranous portion - Produce a clear, ● Fibroelastic capsule
○ Cavernous portion viscid, mucus-like contains
● Accessory glands secretion that, - connective tissue
during sexual - smooth muscle
○ Seminal vesicle
stimulation, is fibers
○ Prostate gland released to lubricate - skeletal muscle
○ Bulbourethral gland the penile urethra fibers in the
and to neutralize its interlobular
urine acidity. connective tissue
Accessory gland Characteristic - During ejaculation, septum
secretions from the
Seminal Vesicle ● Elongated glands bulbourethral glands ● The secretory units vary
located on the precede other in structure and size and
- Produces a posterior side of the components of the resemble mucous
yellowish, viscous bladder. semen glands, exhibiting either
fluid with high ● The excretory duct from acinar or tubular
concentration of each seminal vesicle secretory units
fructose, the main joins the ampulla of each
carbohydrate ductus deferens to form
component of the ejaculatory duct, > Prostatic urethra
semen. Fructose is which runs through the ● Proximal part; exits directly from neck of urinary
metabolized by prostate gland to open bladder
sperm and serves into the prostatic urethra.
● Surrounded by prostate gland
as the energy ● Convoluted and irregular
source for sperm lumina ● Lined by transitional epithelium
motility. ○ Primary mucosal ● Receives prostatic and ejaculatory ducts
fold ● Empties into membranous portion
- Seminal vesicles ○ Secondary
also produce most mucosal fold > Membranous urethra
of the fluid found in ○ Mucosal crypts ● Shortest segment
semen including ● Glandular epithelium -
● Encircled by skeletal muscle of the membrane-like
fibrinogen that low pseudostratified and
urogenital diaphragm.
 ● Lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium 9. Umbilical Cord (cannot be found in the book, search
● Empty into a cavernous portion. “umbilical cord histology”
● Links the prostatic urethra to the penile (cavernous)
urethra. Female Reproductive System
● Paired ovaries
> Cavernous urethra (Penile urethra) ● Paired uterine (fallopian tubes) - connects ovaries to
● Passing through the corpus spongiosum of the penis. the uterus
● Lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium ● Single uterus - simplex uterus
● Divided into bulbous and pendulous parts: ● Cervix
- Fossa navicularis - widened urethral lumen ● Vagina
near tip of the penis. ● External genitalia (no specimen for this)
- Urethral meatus - urethral opening at the end ○ Clitoris
of the penis. ○ Labia minus
- Glands of Littre - mucous glands along ○ Labia majus
urethra; numerous at the pendulous part. ● Mammary glands
● Exhibit structural and functional changes:
○ Menarche
○ Menstrual cycle
○ Menopause

OVARY
>Histological features
Urethra Lining Characteristics
- Layers of Ovary
Prostatic Transitional - It is the urethra that ● Germinal epithelium
epithelium leaves the bladder - Outer covering of Ovary
and passes through - single layer of low cuboidal or squamous cells
the prostate gland ● Tunica Albuginea
- dense, connective tissue layer located below
Membranous Pseudostratified - Shortest segment the germinal epithelium
columnar - Encircled by ● Cortex
epithelium skeletal muscle of - Below the tunica albuginea
the membrane-like - Contains follicles, fibrocytes, and collagen
urogenital and reticular fibers.
diaphragm. ● Medulla
- Center portion of the ovary
Cavernous / Pseudostratified - Surrounded by
- A typical dense irregular connective tissue
Penile columnar corpus spongiosum
epithelium with cavernous that houses the blood vessels, nerves, and
sinuses lymphatics.
- Has a thin - Larger blood vessels from the medulla
underlying lamina distribute smaller vessels to all parts of the
propria ovarian cortex
- Surrounded by ● Mesovarium
numerous
- ligament that suspends the ovary
outpockets or
urethral lacunae
with mucous cells OVARIAN CYCLE (Different Stages of Follicular
Development)
>Cortex
- Houses ovarian follicles
- Region below the tunica albuginea
TOPIC 4: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - Contains follicles, fibrocytes, and collagen and reticular
> Specimens fibers
1. Ovary
2. Oviduct 1. Primordial follicle
3. Uterus - The most numerous follicle
4. Vagina - Located in the cortex inferior to tunica
5. Placenta albuginea
6. Mammary Gland - Smallest and the simplest and are surrounded
7. Urethra Female - overlaps with urinary by a single layer of squamous follicular cells.
8. Cervix
 - Changes into cuboidal layer as it
Component
transitions to become the primary
follicle. Mature Follicle Corpus luteum
- It contains the immature, small primary oocyte
that gradually increases in size as the follicles Components of Mature Follicle
develop into primary, secondary, and mature
follicles. Granulosa cells Light-staining granulosa
2. Primary follicle lutein cells
- Smaller (compared to secondary and mature)
follicles with cuboidal, columnar, or stratified Theca Interna Dark-staining theca lutein
cells
cuboidal cells that surround the primary
oocytes. Fate if no Fertilization
- Has granulosa cell layer and Implantation occur
- Zona pellucida - a prominent layer
of glycoprotein that develops Corpus luteum Corpus albican
between the granulosa cells and the
immature oocyte
OVIDUCTS / UTERINE TUBES / FALLOPIAN TUBES
- Has theca interna and theca externa (outer
>Histological features
connective tissue layer)
● Exhibit mucosal folds - less extensive the closer to the
uterus
*** Liquor folliculi - follicular fluid that will accumulate
● Wall with 3 layers:
between the follicular cells (granulosa cells) as the follicles ○ Mucosa
increase in their size *** - Exhibits mucosal foldings extending into the
- The fluid areas eventually coalesce to form a fluid-filled lumen
cavity, called the Antrum. - Lining epithelium with two types of cells:
- Ciliated columnar cells - numerous
3. Secondary (Antral) follicle in the ampulla and infundibulum
- Follicles with antral cavities - Peg cells (secretory cells) - a bit
- larger and are situated deeper in the cortex darker compared to epithelial cells.
- Has granulosa cell layer, theca interna, and Function: nonciliated cell,
theca externa (outer connective tissue layer) capacitates spermatozoa, making
them capable of fertilizing an ovum
4. Mature follicle in the ampulla.Nutrients secreted by
- The largest ovarian follicle the peg cells aid in maintenance of
● Composition: the spermatozoa and the ovum.
> Large antrum - filled with liquor folliculi and - Basement membrane
surrounded by granulosa cells - Lamina propria of loose connective
> Cumulus oophorus - mound on which the tissue.
primary oocyte is situated. - Mucosa varies during the
> Corona radiata - the cell layer that is menstrual cycle
attached directly to the primary oocyte - the proportion of ciliated
> theca interna and nonciliated cells
> theca externa varying in the stages of the
menstrual cycle.
>AFTER OVULATION< - The mucosa of the fallopian
● Mature (large) follicle collapses and transforms into a tube undergoes structural
temporary endocrine organ → the corpus luteum modifications that are
● Granulosa cells of the follicle transform into → synchronized with the
light-staining granulosa lutein cells phases of the endometrial
● Theca interna cells become the darker-staining cycle: proliferative,
theca lutein cells secretory, and menstrual
● If fertilization and implantation do not occur, the corpus phases.
luteum regresses, degenerates, and turns into a
connective tissue scar called the corpus albicans
● Corpus albicans - connective tissue scar; former Endometrial Hormonal Fallopian tube
unfertilized corpus luteum stage influence mucosa
characteristics

The Follicle and its Fate after Ovulation Proliferative Dominated by ● The ciliated
 ● Isthmus
phase estrogen cells undergo
hypertrophy, - A short and narrow section
exhibit cilia - Joins the uterus
growth, and ● Intramural segment / Intramural segment
become - Interstitial region
predominant. - Penetrates the uterine wall and opens into the
cavity.
Secretory phase Dominated by ● The ciliary - Section found already within the wall of uterus
progesterone activity remains
following high to facilitate
ovulation UTERUS
the movement
>Three regions
of the fertilized
● Body / Corpus - major portion
egg (if
● Fundus - rounded upper portion of the uterus located
fertilization
above the entrance of the uterine tubes
occurs).
● Cervix - lower, narrower, terminal portion located
● The epithelial
below the fundus; opens into vagina.
cells secrete
more fluids,
creating
nutrient-rich
environment
suitable for a
fertilized egg

Menses phase Decline in ● The activity of

estrogen and the cilia
progesterone decreases due
levels to the drop in >Histological features
hormonal ● Wall with 3 layers:
support. 1. Endometrium - innermost layer lined with
simple epithelium; involved in the menstrual
cycle
○ Muscularis 2. Myometrium - layer of thick smooth muscle;
- Two layers of smooth muscles (inner circular the muscularis
and outer longitudinal) 3. Perimetrium - lined by serosa
- Interstitial connective tissue abundant in
between.
○ Serosa
- Outermost layer - visceral peritoneum
- Connected to the mesosalpinx (mesentery,
keeps the oviduct in place)

>ENDOMETRIUM
● Uterine mucosa
(xs of the oviduct)
● Divided into two major layers:
>Four regions
○ Stratum functionale / pars functionalis
● Infundibulum
> luminal layer (zona compacta -compact
- Funnel-shaped section closest to the ovary
zone, zona spongiosa-spongy zone).
- The one who will receive the ovulated egg
> layer with uterine glands and blood vessels
coming from the ovary
shed off (menstruation)
- Fimbriae - finger-like extension located close
> During menstruation, the functionalis layer
to the ovary.
with the uterine glands and blood vessels is
● Ampulla
sloughed off, or shed leaving the intact deeper
- Widest and longest section
basalis layer with the basal remnants of the
- Site of egg fertilization
 uterine glands whose cells regenerate a new
functionalis layer.
○ Stratum basale / pars basalis
- Basal layer (zona basale).
- Basal remnants of uterine glands
(menstruation)

Endometrial glands

Endometrial Hormonal Endometrial gland

Stage Influence Characteristics
ENDOMETRIAL CYCLE
Proliferative Dominated by ● The glands are
phase estrogen generally 1. Menses
straight and - Layer becomes necrotic
tubular,
reflecting their - Stratum functionale shed off leaving only the
rapid growth. stratum basale
● High rate of 2. Proliferative Phase
mitotic activity - Uterine glands appear straight and long
in the glandular - As a result, numerous uterine glands are seen
cells, in the cross section.
contributing to
- Under the influence of increased levels of
the thickening
of the ovarian estrogen, the stratum functionalis
endometrium. increases in thickness, and the uterine glands
elongate and follow a straight course to the
Secretory phase Dominated by ● The glands surface.
progesterone become more 3. Secretory (Luteal) Phase
coiled and - Uterine glands becomes very coiled with wide
dilated
lumen; spiral glands with white lumen
● Endometrial
glands start to - The epithelium of the uterine gland undergoes
produce and hypertrophy (enlarges) because of increased
secrete accumulation of the secretory product
glycogen-rich - The changes in the endometrium are now due
substances, to both estrogen and progesterone secreted
which help by the functioning corpus luteum.
create a
- Uterine glands become highly coiled
supportive
environment - Lumina gets dilated with secretory materials
for a potential rich in carbohydrates
egg fertilization - Presence of coiled arteries extending to the
upper portion of the endometrium may be
Menses phase Decline in ● Shedding of observed.
estrogen and glands along
progesterone with blood
levels vessels
● The secretory
activity of the
glands ceases
as the
endometrial
tissue
degenerates.
 - Providing suitable environment for
the fertilization of the oocytes in the
uterine (fallopian) tube
- Transportation of the developing
embryo to the uterus and its
implantation
- Nutrition and development of the
fetus during pregnancy
- Nutrition of the newborn.

MAMMARY GLAND

● A compound tubuloalveolar gland

● Consists of about 20 lobes connected to lactiferous
ducts that open at the nipple
● The lobes are separated by connective tissue partitions
and adipose tissue.
● The Resting or Inactive Mammary Glands
○ Small, consist of ducts, and do not exhibit any
developed or secretory alveoli.
○ Exhibits slight cyclic alterations during the
menstrual cycle
○ Under estrogenic stimulation, the secretory
cells increase in height, lumina appear in the
ducts, and a small amount of secretory
material is accumulated.

VAGINA
>Histological features
● Muscular tube section
● Wall with 3 layers:
○ Mucosa
- Stratified squamous epithelium (non
Image above^^ keratinized)
1st - menses - Lamina propria of dense irregular
2nd - proliferative phase connective tissue
3rd and 4th - secretory phase - Absence of glands
5th - menses ○ Muscularis
MENSTRUAL CYCLE - Two layers of smooth muscles (inner
- Cyclic monthly change in structure and function of the circular and outer longitudinal)
female reproductive organ. ○ Adventitia - outer layer
- A 28-day cycle that governs ovarian and endometrial
cyclicity in humans.
- The menstrual cycle is controlled by two hormones FEMALE URETHRA
secreted by adenohypophysis of the anterior ● Vulvar urethra
pituitary gland: ● Shorter than the male urethra
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) ● Initially lined with transitional epithelium
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH) ● Transitions to pseudostratified columnar or stratified
- The release is controlled by the squamous epithelium.
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) secreted by neurons in the
hypothalamus TOPIC 5 : MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- Two ovarian hormones (female sex hormones) > Specimens
1. Estrogen 1. Testis
2. Progesterone 2. Genital tract
- Functions of the hormones: a. Epididymis
- Development of female sexual b. Vas deferens
characteristics c. Spermatic cord
- Production of oocytes d. Urethra - Male
 3. Accessory genital glands Dark type A spermatogonia → pale type A spermatogonia
a. Human prostate gland → type B spermatogonia → primary spermatocytes →
b. Seminal vesicle secondary spermatocytes → spermatids
4. Penis
Undergo Mitosis
Male Reproductive System - Dark type A spermatogonia
● Pair of testes - Pale type A spermatogonia
● Genital ducts - type B spermatogonia
● Accessory glands
- Seminal vesicle Undergo Meiosis
- Prostate gland - Primary spermatocytes (first meiotic division)
- Bulbourethral gland - Secondary spermatocytes (second meiotic division)
● Urethra (Penis)
Spermatids do not continue to divide but instead undergo
Testis spermiogenesis
● Tunica albuginea
- A thick connective tissue capsule that Spermiogenesis
surrounds each testis - an extensive and complex morphological
● Mediastinum testis transformation of a round cell into an elongated sperm
- Formed by thick tunica albuginea that extends with a nucleus and a motile tail (flagellum).
inward into each testis on the posterior side
● Septum Spermatogenic cells are held together by thin intercellular or
- A thin connective tissue that extends from the cytoplasmic bridges during further development and
mediastinum testis and subdivides each testis differentiation.
into about 250 incomplete compartments or - These intercellular bridges are broken when the
testicular lobules. developed spermatids are released (spermiation)
● Testicular lobules
- Also known as testis incomplete Supportive Sertoli cells
compartments - adhere to the basal lamina in the seminiferous tubules
- each containing one to four highly coiled with their apices extending into the lumen.
seminiferous tubules - Function - Physical support, protection, and
nutrition of the developing spermatogenic cells.
Seminiferous tubules - Production and release of androgen-binding
protein (ABP)
● Each seminiferous tubule is lined with a stratified - to concentrate testosterone in tubules and
germinal epithelium testicular fluid for sperm transport
● Contains: - Secretion of the hormone inhibin, which suppresses
○ proliferating spermatogenic (germ) cells the release of FSH
○ nonproliferating supporting (sustentacular), or
Sertoli, cells > Spermiogenesis
● Function - the site of spermatogenic cell division, > Spermiogenesis - transformation of spermatids
maturation, and transformation into sperm. ● Spermiogenesis Changes: Spherical spermatids
● Fibroblasts, muscle-like cells, nerves, blood vessels, transform by altering size and shape, condensing
and lymphatic vessels surrounds each seminiferous nuclear chromatin, and elongating their heads.
tubule ● Golgi Phase:
○ Acrosomal Formation: Small granules in the
● Interstitial cells (of Leydig)
Golgi apparatus accumulate to form an
- Located between the seminiferous tubules acrosomal granule within a membrane-bound
- Clusters of epithelioid cells acrosomal vesicle adjacent to the nuclear
- cells are steroid-secreting cells that produce envelope.
the male sex hormone testosterone. ○ Anterior Identification: The acrosomal
vesicle's position indicates the developing
Spermatogenic Cells sperm's anterior region.
● Spermatogonium ● Acrosomal Phase:
○ Acrosome Cap Formation: Acrosomal
● Primary spermatocyte
vesicle and granule spread over the anterior
● Secondary spermatocyte two-thirds of the condensing spermatid
● Spermatids nucleus.
○ Flagellum Development: Centrioles migrate
Sequence to the opposite (posterior) pole, assembling
microtubules to form the sperm tail or
flagellum.
● Enzyme Inclusion: The fully formed acrosome
contains hydrolytic enzymes (hyaluronidase, acid Sperm travel (sequence of genital duct system)
phosphatase, protease with trypsin-like activity) Seminiferous tubules (made) → Tubuli recti → Rete testis →
essential for penetrating the oocyte's surrounding cells
Ductuli efferentes → Ductus epididymis → Vas deferens →
and membrane, aiding fertilization.
● Maturation Phases: Ejaculatory duct → Urethra
○ Head Embedment: Elongated spermatid
heads embed in the cytoplasm of supportive
Sertoli cells.
○ Flagellum Coverage: The spermatid's plasma
membrane moves posterior from the nucleus
to cover the developing flagellum.
○ Mitochondrial Migration: Mitochondria form a
tight sheath around the middle piece of the
developed flagellum.
○ Final Maturation: Excess cytoplasm is shed,
and sperm are released into the seminiferous
tubule's lumen, with supportive Sertoli cells
phagocytosing the residual cytoplasm.

Male Hormones
● Luteinizing hormone
- binds to receptors on interstitial cells and
stimulates testosterone secretion ● Urethra
● Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) ○ Prostatic urethra
- stimulates Sertoli cells to produce ○ Membranous urethra
androgen-binding hormone into ○ Penile urethra
seminiferous tubules to bind testosterone
● Testosterone Ductus epididymis
- vital for spermatogenesis and accessory ● Long convoluted tubule
gland function ● Function - Temporary storage of sperm cells
● Inhibin ● Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- inhibit FSH production consists of:
● Activin ○ Tall columnar principal cells with stereocilia
- to release FSH from pituitary gland via (nonmotile)
negative feedback ○ Small basal cells
● Smooth muscle layer surrounding the epithelium
The Genital Duct System - Contraction, help move out the sperm cells
● Connective tissue surrounding the tubule
● Intratesticular genital tract ● Continues as ductus deferens
- Located within the testis
○ Whole testis made out of seminiferous tubules Ductus deferens or Vas deferens
■ Compartmentalize ● Narrow, irregular lumen
■ Where spermatogenesis occur ● Mucosal folds
● Three major layers:
(Travel of the sperm) 1. Thin mucosa
1. Tubuli recti or Straight tubules - Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
● Section right after the seminiferous with stereocilia (shorter epithelium
tubules compared to epididymis).
2. Rete testis - Thin lamina propria
3. Ductuli efferentes or Efferent ductules 2. Thick muscularis
- Three smooth muscle layers:
● Excretory genital tract - Inner longitudinal
- Located outside the testis - Middle circular, and
- Outer longitudinal
1. Ductus epididymis 3. Adventitia
- Where sperm temporarily stay - Rich in blood vessels and nerves
2. Ductus deferens or Vas deferens - Merges with spermatic cord
- Protected by spermatic cord
3. Ejaculatory duct Spermatic cord - bundle of duct,
4. Urethra blood vessels, nerves.
 ● Fibroelastic capsule contains
Accessory glands ○ connective tissue
● Seminal vesicle ○ smooth muscle fibers
● Prostate gland ○ skeletal muscle fibers (in the interlobular
● Bulbourethral gland connective tissue septum)
● Connective tissue septa from the capsule
Seminal vesicle - divide the gland into several lobules
● resemble mucous glands
● Found posterior to the urinary bladder. ● Secretory cells are cuboidal, low columnar, or
● The excretory duct joins ductus deferens = ejaculatory squamous
duct = opens in prostatic urethra ● The secretory product of the bulbourethral glands is
● Excretory duct is not part of the genital duct system primarily mucus.
● Exhibit primary and secondary mucosal folds = ○ lubricates and neutralizes penile urethra
irregular lumina = mucosal crypts
● Glandular epithelium - low pseudostratified, low Male urethra
columnar or cuboidal Three sections in the Male Urethra:
● Muscularis of inner circular and outer longitudinal 1. Prostatic portion
muscle layers 2. Membranous portion
● Adventitia - outer layer 3. Cavernous or Penile portion

● Produce a yellowish, viscous fluid with high Penis

concentration of fructose ● With 3 cylinders of spongy erectile tissues
- the main carbohydrate component of semen. - 2 dorsal Corpora Cavernosa (deep artery)
● Produce most of the fluid found in semen, including - 1 ventral Corpus spongiosum
fibrinogen to coagulate semen
● Tunica albuginea - connective tissue surrounding the
Prostate gland corpora cavernosa and forms a median septum
between the two bodies.
● Compound tubulo-alveolar gland arranged in 3 ● Buck’s fascia or Penile fascia
concentric groups - with prostatic concretions - loose connective tissue that surrounds all
● Epithelial lining three cavernous bodies
○ Tall cuboidal to pseudostratified columnar - is surrounded by the connective tissue of the
○ Or Glandular epithelium dermis located below the epithelium of the
● Surrounded with fibromuscular stroma of smooth epidermis.
muscle bundles ● Cavernous sinuses (veins)
● Prostatic urethra - crescent-shaped; lined with - Formed and surrounded by trabeculae with
transitional epithelium collagenous, elastic, nerve, and smooth
● Colliculus seminalis muscle fibers
- dome like structure - (of the corpora cavernosa) are lined with
- protrudes into and gives the prostatic urethra endothelium and receive blood from the
a crescent shape. dorsal arteries and deep arteries of the penis.
- On each side of the colliculus seminalis are - (in the corpus spongiosum) receive blood
the prostatic sinuses into which open the from the bulbourethral artery
excretory ducts of the prostatic glands - A branch of the internal pudendal
● Utricle artery.
- a cul-de-sac located in the middle of the ● Helicine arteries
colliculus seminalis - Formed by the deep arteries that branch in
- with a dilation at its distal end before it opens the corpora cavernosa
into the prostatic urethra. - Empty directly into the cavernous sinuses
● Endothelium
● Produces a thin, watery, slightly acidic fluid, rich in - Lines erectile tissue or vascular spaces
citric acid, prostatic acid phosphatase, amylase,
and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). ● Urethra - passes through corpus spongiosum
○ liquefy semen ● Lined with transitional, pseudostratified or stratified
columnar to stratified squamous
Bulbourethral gland ● Urethral lacunae (of Morgani)
- invaginations with mucous cells
● Paired - Located in the penile urethra
● compound tubuloacinar glands ● Urethral glands (of littre)
- Branched tubular
- Connects to the urethral lacunae
- The ducts open into the lumen of the penile
urethra throughout its length.