HISTOLOGY OF THE

NERVOUS TISSUE
BY
DR DADA M.S
 NERVOUS TISSUE
• Nervous Tissue
• - Made up of specialized cells for conduction of
impulses - Neurons
• - And supporting cells - Neuroglia
• - Nervous Tissue of body comprise
– brain.
– Spinal cord,
– nerves
– and ganalia
• -
 CNS
• Brain and S/cord
• PNS
– Paired Nerves of S/Cord and Ganglia
• Cerebrospinal system = CNS and PNS
• Autonomic N/S
– Sympathetic N/S and Para N/S
 Neurons = Nerve Cell
• Structural and Functional unit
• Cell body (Perikaryon)
– Contains nucleus
– Cytoplasmic processes
• Short - dendrites
• One long process - Axon
• Dendrites - Cytoplasmic processes which conduct
impulses to cell body
– 0, or 1or 2 or many
– short and branching
• Axon
– always 1
– long and unbranching
cytoplasmic process.
– Conducts impulses
away from cell body
– May give rise to side
branches which come
out perpendicularly
• Collaterals
– end by aborizations.
 Cell Body (Perikaryon)
• Nucleus and Cytoplasm
(neuroplasm)
• Nucleus
– single, spherical, vesicular
– Central
– with prominent Nucleolus.
• Neuroplasm
– organoids and inclusion bodies
• Organoids
– mitochondria,
– Golgi app,
– Nissl granules - most
prominent
• basic granules
• by Frank NissL in 19th cent.
• Neurofibrils
– fine threads crisss Crossing
in cyto
– run parallel into all
processes
– EM - bundle of delicate
neurofilaments
– pathway for transmission of
impulses.
– support cell body and
processes.
• Neuro tubules are also present
in cytoplasm
• Non living inclusion bodies
• Pigment granules
• yellow - lipochrome (lipofuscin)
• black
– Melanin
– S/N

• Nongranules
• Glycogen
• Fat droplets
– food reserve
– from cell metabolism
– from pathology.
• Iron granules - in Nerve Cells of SN
 AXON AND CONSTITUTENTS
• Arise from axon Hillock
– an elevated part of cell
body
– No RER or Ribosomes
• Neurotubules arranged
into bundles
– Extend to initial segment
of Axon
• Cytoplasm of Axon = Axonplasm
• Contains
– neuro tubules,
– neurofibrils and mitochondria.
– No Nissl granules which synthesize
proteins
• Protein of axon flow from cell body
–axonal flow
 Classification of Neurons
• Morphology
• Functional
Morphology
• According to processes
• UNIPOLAR Not Common
– One process = axon
– No dendrites
– Mesencephalic mucleus of V.
• Pseudo unipolar
– Dev. from bipolar neuron
– Then become unipolar
– Dendrite and Axon
• Sites
– ganglia of crainial nerves
except 1st, 2nd and 8th
– ganglia of spinal nerves
• Bipolar Neurons
– Small spindle shaped cell
– with 2 cytoplasmic
processes
• Sites - retina
– Olfactory mucosa
– Spiral ganglion of cochlea
– Vestibular ganglion -
vestibule of ear
– Taste buds
Multipolar Neurons
• Many dendrites
• One axon from axon hillock
• most common in CNS
• Sites
– Cell bodies in gray matter of
brain and S/C
– sympathetic ganglia
– Vary in shape
 Classified According To Shape
Pyriform neurons (Pear shaped)
• Purkinje Cells of cerebellum
– Large pear shaped cells
– Middle layer of cerebellum.
(Cortex)
– Few dendrites
– branch in fanlike manner
– in outer layer of cerebellar
cortex
– Axons extend into the inner
layer
• Ganglion Cells of retina.
PYRAMIDAL NEURONS
• Pyramidal shape
• Large or medium or
small
– Nerve cells of cerebral
cortex in motor area
Stellate Neurons
– Star shaped
polygonal cells
– Vary in size
– Large
• neurons of ventral
horn of S/C
– Small
• Dorsal horn
• sympathetic
ganglion
 Physiological Classification
Sensory neurons
• conduct impulses to CNS
• Cell bodies in ganglia
– cerebral or spinal
• Affarent
Motor - Efferent
• Conduct impulses to organs
– Cell bodies in CNS
Association neurons
• bridge between sensory and motor
• Cell bodies in CNS
– Sensory neurons relay to
Association
– Association relay to Motor.
 SYNAPSE

• Region of close proximity between

dendrite of one neuron
• With terminal aborization of another
neuron
• Impulses pass across synapse
• Synapse consists of
• Presynaptic Terminal
– axon terminal
– usually expanded forming a
bulb end
– end bulb or foot plate
– contain axoplasm
– rich in mitochondria and
vesicles
– synaptic vesicles
• contain chemical
transmitter
– bulb surrounded by
axolemma
• Presynaptic membrane
Post Synaptic Terminal
• receives impulses
• covered by prox synaptic
memb.
• Both Pre and Post synaptic
memb. Show EM irregular
thickenings.

Synaptic Cleft
• Gap between pre and post
synaptic memb.
• 20 nm
• Receive chemical mediators
from end bulb vesicles
 Classification of Synapse
According to site of
termination of Axon
• Axo - dendritic
• Axo - somatic
• Axo - Axonic
According to Physiological function
• Excitatory
• Inhibitory
According to mediator responsible for nerve
impulse
• Chemical synapse - chemical transmitters
– ACH, Catecolamines
• Electrical synapse - there is gap junction between
cells
• Ions pass from pre synaptic to Post synaptic
neurons.
 NERVE FIBRE
• Axon and covering sheath
• 2 types based on covering
• Myelinated
– Axon covered with myelin sheath
– chemically of lipoprotein
– Ext. to myelin sheath is neurolemma Sheath
– Schwann Sheath with Schwann cell on one side
– Found in peripheral NS.
• Myelinated fibre of optic
nerve has no Schwann
sheath.
• Myelin Sheath formed by
Schwann cells.
– Schwann cells rotate round the
axon
– about 50 turns
– forms series of concentric
rings
– Made up of 2 layers of cell
membrane
– the cytoplasm squeezed back
to cell body of Schwann cell.
• Appears as concentric dark
rings
• Major dense lines
• lighter areas Wt thinner dark
lines
– intra period lines
• Major dense lines = fusion
of inner layers of the
infolded cell memb of
Schwann cell
• light areas in between =
lipids from 2 cell memb.
• Intraperiod lines = fusion of
2 outer layers of the cell
memb. (protein)
• Myelin sheath show cone,
shaped clefts
– described by Schmidt –
Lanterman
– Clefts of Schmidt –
Lanterman.
• - Nodes of Ranvier.
Non Myelinated
• Axon Not surrounded by myelin Sheath
• Axon is covered by neurolemma.
• Termination of all nerve fibres lack both myelin
sheath and neurolemma.
• In a myelinated nerve fibre
– Axon is devoid of myelin at its
origin
• initial segment
– Acquires myelin sheath in the
white matter together with
neurolemma along its peripheral
path.
– Finally becomes completely
naked again ie without myelin
and neurolemma at its terminal
end.
Functions of myelin sheath and Schwann Sheath
• Insulator increasing the speed of impulse transmission to
about 4 times
• Neurolemma or Schwann Sheath supplies axon with nutrition
• In non myelinated, neurolemma acts as an insulator for
nerve impulse
• Neurolemma helps regeneration after injury
– Proliferation of Schwan Cell.
– Syntitial tube.
• Cells of neurolemma participate in formation of myelin
sheath.

• Compare and Axon and Dendrites

 PERIPHERAL NERVE FIBRES
• Nerves have a whitish, homogeneous,
glistening appearance
– myelin and collagen content.
– Appear in bundles
• T/S Shows:
• Endoneurium
– Conn Tissue around one nerve fibre
– Small blood vessel
• Perineurium
– relatively dense CT around each bundle
of nerve fibre.
– Separate bundles - nerve tunks
• Epineurium
– surround bundles (folliculus)
– sends septa to form perineurium.
– which continues with endomeurium
– contains blood V, lymphatics fat cells.
 Ganglia
• Ganglia are ovoid structures containing neuronal cell bodies and
glial cells supported by connective tissue. Because they serve as,
one nerve enters and another exits from each ganglion.

• Nodular collection of cell bodies of sensory neurons

– PseudoUnipola neurons
– covered by a CT capsule
– Outside but close to CNS
– relay stations to transmit nerve impulses
– direction of the nerve impulse determines whether the ganglion will be a
sensory or an autonomic ganglion.
– 2 types
• Cerebrospinal
– Cranial
– Spinal
• Antonomic
Sensory ganglia
• receive afferent impulses that
go to the central nervous
system.
• Two types of sensory ganglia
exist.
– Some are associated with cranial
nerves (cranial ganglia);
– others are associated with the
dorsal root of the spinal nerves
and are called spinal ganglia.
• comprise large neuronal cell bodies
• prominent fine Nissl bodies
• abundant small glial cells called
satellite cells.
Cranial
• Cell bodies of afferent neurons
• Enter brain by some cranial nerves
• lie, close to but outside the Brain
• Spinal
• Cell bodies of afferent neurons
• Enter S/C via spinal nerves
• lie outside but close to S/C
• also called dorsal route ganglia
• lie in inter vert. foramen
• has thick dense CT capsule
• Large spherical cell bodies
• Pale nucleus with prominent nucleolus.
• Each cell body surrounded by a well dev.
Capsule
– Capsular cells (Amphicytes)
– single layer of flattened supporting cells
– Separates cell body from CT framework of
ganglion
• Pseudounipolar neurons
– peripheral process or dendrite
– Central process of axon
– Cell bodies arranged in groups mostly at
periphery of ganglion
– few cell bodies
– nerve fibres are myelinated and large
• Autonomic Ganglia
– numerous cell bodies
– small multipolar and
steallate
– thin nerve fibres
– Unmyelinate
– ill defined capsular
cells surrounding
each cell body.
– not arranged in
group but scattered.
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Nervous system related to control of
– smooth muscle,
– secretion of some glands,
– modulation of cardiac rhythm.
• Functions to maintain homeostasis.
• By definition ANS is a motor system,
• But has sensory fibres from internal organs
– accompany the motor fibers of the autonomic
system.
• Most function is autonomous
• Anatomically, consists of
• Collections of nerve cells located in CNS,
• Fibers leave CNS through cranial or spinal nerves,
• To nerve ganglia situated in the paths of these
fibers.
• The term "autonomic" covers all the neural
elements concerned with visceral function.
• Dependent on the central nervous system as are
the motor neurons that trigger muscle
contractions.
• CNS is a two-neuron network.
• The first neuron located in CNS.
• Axon forms a synapse with the second multipolar
neuron
– located in a ganglion of the peripheral nervous system.
• The nerve fibers (axons) of the first neuron are called
preganglionic fibers;
• the axons of the second neuron to the effectors—
muscle or gland—are called postganglionic fibers.
• The chemical mediator acetyl choline
– present in the synaptic vesicles in all preganglionic
endings
– and at anatomically parasympathetic postganglionic
endings.
• The adrenal medulla only organ that receives
preganglionic fibers, because the majority of
the cells, after migration into the gland,
differentiate into secretory cells rather than
ganglion cells.
• ANS composed of two parts that differ both
anatomically and functionally:
• the sympathetic system
• and the parasympathetic system
• Nerve fibers that release acetylcholine are
called cholinergic.
• Cholinergic fibers include all the preganglionic
autonomic fibers (sympathetic as well as
parasympathetic)
• and postganglionic parasympathetic fibers to
smooth muscles, heart, and exocrine glands.
 Sympathetic System
• The nuclei located in lateral horn of the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal
cord.
– thoracolumbar division of ANS.
• preganglionic fibers
– leave the CNS through ventral roots and white communicating rami of
the thoracic and lumbar nerves.
– Chemical mediator acetyl choline
• Postganglionic fibers
– Chemical mediator is norepinephrine,
– also produced by the adrenal medulla.
– Nerve fibers that release norepinephrine are called adrenergic .
– Adrenergic fibers innervate sweat glands and blood vessels of skeletal muscle.
– Cells of the adrenal medulla release epinephrine and norepinephrine in
response to preganglionic sympathetic stimulation.
 Parasympathetic System

• Nuclei in the medulla and midbrain

• And in the sacral portion of the spinal cord.
• The preganglionic fibers of these neurons leave
through four of the cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, and
X)
• and also through the second, third, and fourth
sacral spinal nerves.
– therefore also called the craniosacral division of the
autonomic system.
• The second neuron of the parasympathetic series is
found in ganglia
– smaller than those of the sympathetic system;
– always located near or within the effector organs.
– These neurons are usually located in the walls of organs
(eg, stomach, intestines),
– preganglionic fibers enter the organs and form a synapse
there with the second neuron in the chain.
• The chemical mediator released by the pre- and
postganglionic nerve endings of the parasympathetic
system, acetylcholine,
– readily inactivated by acetylcholinesterase
• More Discrete
• More localized action than does sympathetic stimulation.
 NERVE ENDINGS
• Nerves end in Skin muscle or glands
• Classification
• Functional
– Receptors or Sensory
• receive impulses from outside Or internal organs
– Effectors or motor
• Transmit impulses to muscles to contract
• or glands to secrete Or excrete
• According where they end
– Epith
– Muscle
– CT
 RECEPTORS
• Special Senses
– Smell, Sight and hearing and Taste - special organs
• General Senses
– Movement and position of body
– Pressure, Temp, Touch, Pain
• Receptors Classified - Location
• Exteroceptor
• Intero - receptors
• Proprioceptors - from muscles, joints and deeper
parts of body.
According to function
• Touch (mechanoreceptors)
– Meissners Corpuscles
– Merkel’s tactile disc
• Naked nerve endings
• Temperature
– Krause’s end bulb - cold
– Ruffini Corpuscles - heat
• Proprioception
– Pacinian corpuscle - pressure and vibration
– muscle spindle - muscle sense
– Tendon spindles - (N-M-tendinous Spindle)
• Pain
– free nerve endings
 TOUCH RECEPTORS
Meissners Corpuscle
• Ovoid
• consists of central mass
ofirregular flattered Schwann
Cells
• lie transv surrounded by capsule
of cells several layers thick
• Nerve fibres penertrate central
mass of cells then branch
• branches spiral to end by
irregularly curved nerve ending
around the cells.
LOCATION
• C/T papillae of skin
below epidermis.
– finger tips, palms,
sole
– most abundant in
finger tips, lips,
nipples
– Margin of eye lids
and Ext. genitalia
• MERKEL’S DISCS
– tactile disc like expansion
– attached to modified epith cells
called tactile cells or Merkel’s
cells
– have finger like cytoplasmic
projections
– Contain electron dense granules
• = Synaptic vesicles
– Each tactile disc is attached to
base of one tactile cell.
– Found in deep layers of
epidermis of Lips, finger tips, tip
of tongue and sheaths of hair
roots.
• Naked free Nerve endings
– Expanded free endings of
nerve fibres
– Surround bases of many hair
follicles as
– a basket (Plexus of Bounet)
– Sensitive to delicate touch
– Stimulated by displacement
of hair
– cornea contains only free
nerve endings
– sensitive to light touch
 TEMPERATURE RECEPTORS
• KRAUSE END BULB
– Cold Stimuli
– Thin round mass in a capsule
of CT
– network of coiled
unmyelinated nerve ending
among granular material.
– Dermis of Skin, Conjunctiva,
mucosa of tongue Ext
genitalia.
• RUFFINI CORPUSCLES
– heat stimuli
– thin elongated spindle shaped
receptory
– thin caps. Of CT.
– Containing loose aborization
of nerve fibres
– ending in flattered expansions
– collagen bundles and granular
material in b/w
– Dermis Skin and subcut esp of
foot
 PROPRIOCEPTORS
Pacinian Corpuscle
• Pressure and vibrations
• Oval or rounded
• With central elongated core of
granular material
• thick CT caps
• several concentric layers of flattened
cells (modified Schwann)
• Supplied by one thick myelinated
nerve fibre
• enters core, looses myelin sheath
• aborizes within the bulb
• Pressure or stretch elongates
Sites
• Dermis and hypodermis
– finger tips, palms and sole of feet.
• In loose CT of
– near tendons and joints
– Inter osseous memb leg and forearm
– Perimysium of SK muscles
– serous memb
– under mucous memb.
– mammary glands
– Ext. genitalia male and female
– Pancreases
– myocardium
– Cornea of eye
• Muscle Spindle
– Proprioceptors for muscle sense
– between striated muscle fibres
near musculo-tendinous Junction
– Elongated fusiform structure
• Contain
– nerve fibres
– some modified muscle fibres
• narrower and shorter
• spindle shaped Intrafusal
muscle fibre
• Thick CT capsule
• 2 types of intrafusal fibres
• Nuclear bag intrafusal
– middle part expanded
and contain many
centrally located nuclei
– no myofibrils in this part
• Nuclear chain
– Middle region contain large
nuclei
– arranged in chain
– short and narrower than nuclear
bag
– Intrafusal fibres have faint
striations
– attached by their ends to
extrafusal striated muscle fibres
between which they lie
– One end may be attached to
tendon
• Nerve fibres enter caps
• run in spiral cork-Screw course
around
• Intrafusal muscle fibres
– annulo-spiral ending
• Smaller afferents end on nuclear
chain if fibres
– In an arboization - flower
spray
• Fine motor endings end on both
IF fibres in small motor end
plates.
• TENDON SPINDLES (Neuro-
tendinous, Tendon Spindles
of Golgi)
– Resembles muscle spindle
– Several bundles of
callagenous fibres
– replace intra fusal fibres
• Nerve enters the spindle
– run course around
collagen bundles of
tendon
• free terminals may break up
into arborization on
collageaons bundles
• PAIN RECEPTORS
• Areas where naked terminal
branches innervate
• Nerve extend between epith
cells in skin and cornea
• Endings branch freely and
end in beaded like free
nerve ending beneath and
between cells of deep layer
of epidermis
• Present in epith of resp and
bucal cavity.
• EFFECTORS
– Organs of response
– muscles and glands
• Motor end plates
– ending of motor nerve in
skeletal muscles
– myelinated motor nerve
looses myelin
– comes in contact with
Sarcolemma of muscle fibres
– Branch reatedly
– Each twig (axon terminal)
ends as a motor and plate
– Axon terminal invaginate
sarcolemma
– lie in a mass of sarcoplasm -
Motor Unit
• Motor neuron + nerve fibre + all striated muscles
fibres innervated by the branches of the nerve
• May supply few muscle fibres - Extra ocular
muscle
• Or innervate numerous muscle fibes eg SK
muscle
• In majority of SK muscle
– each muscle fibre is supplied with a single nerve
– with only one motor end plate.
• In tongue and smooth muscle spindle
– each fibre has 2 motor end plates.
 SOLE PLATE
• Region of muscle fibre
where motor end plate
• Devoid of myofibrils
– elevated.
– filled with
Sarcoplasm
– contain many
muscle nuclei, and
mito.
– called Sole plate
• Axon terminal has numerous
mito and synaptic vesicles
containing ACH
• Nerve impulse release of ACH
• Contact Invaginated
sarcoplasm.
• Sarcolemma under axon
terminal is corrugated
forming clefts
– subneural clefts
– contain acetyl choline esterase
– metabolize ACH to prevent
– Continuous excitation and
contraction.
Secretory Nerve Ending
• Go to secretory glands
– non myelinated autonomic
– form plexus outside B/M of gland cells
– from plexus nerve fibres penertrate BM
– form another plexus on its int. surface around
bases of secretory cells
– from this inner plex slender fibres end in or in
between secretory cells.
 INJURIES TO NERVE FIBRE
• Injuries to nerve fibre leads to Degeneration
• 2 types
– Wallerian degeneration
– Retrograde degeneration
• Traumatic degeneration Same as wallerian
degeneration.
Wallerian
• Degen process distal to point of injury
• Involves axon and myelin sheath.
• Neurolemma not involved
Axon
• acquires beaded appearance
• swelling of neurofibrils
• Neurofibrils soon disintegrate into granules
• Dead axon disappears.
• Its granules are phagocytosed by macrophages migrating
from the endo neurium
Myelin Sheath
• loses its luster
• begins to decompose into myelin fragments
• myelin fragments turn into fat droplets
• fat droplets phagocytosed by macrophages
• The macrophages depart and move away
• neurolemma or Schwann Sheath persist
• Schwann cell from the proximal stump proliferale
• And grow out to meet distal stump.
• Thus establish a continuous sheath across the cut
• Establishing a tube for regeneration from cut part of
axon.
RETROGRADE REGEN
• Occurs in cell body when axon is cut
• stimulus for this rxn is the injury to axon
– also called axon reaction
• - Includes
– (1) Partial lysis of Nissl granules (Chromatolysis)
– (2) Fragmentation and disappearance of neuro fibrils, Golgi and
Mitoch.
– (3) Swelling and vacuolation of perikaryon
– (4) Pyknosis of nucleus which takes up eccentric position.
• If injury is severe, the cell degenerates and dies
• If not, if stops at chromatolysis regen.
• Takes place - 1st in axon
– Then cell body and formation Nissl granules
• Normal appearance
• Traumatic Degen
• - at site of injury
• - involves 1 or 2 nodes of ranvier
• - Similar to Wallerian degen.
•
• After the regressive changes,
• the proximal segment of the axon grows and branches,
forming several filaments that progress in the direction of
the columns of Schwann cells.
• Only fibers that penetrate these Schwann cell columns
will continue to grow and reach an effector organ .
• When there is an extensive gap between the distal and
proximal segments,
• or when the distal segment disappears altogether (as in
the case of amputation of a limb),
• the newly grown nerve fibers may form a swelling,
• or neuroma, that can be the source of spontaneous pain.
• Regeneration is functionally efficient only when the
fibers and the columns of Schwann cells are
directed to the correct place.
• The possibility is good, however, since each
regenerating fiber gives origin to several processes,
and each column of Schwann cells receives
processes from several regenerating fibers.
• In an injured mixed nerve, however, if regenerating
sensory fibers grow into columns connected to
motor end plates that were occupied by motor
fibers, the function of the muscle will not be
reestablished.
• In contrast to nerve cells, neuroglia of the
central nervous system—and Schwann cells
and ganglionic satellite cells of the peripheral
nervous system—are able to divide by mitosis.
Spaces in the central nervous system left by
nerve cells lost by disease or injury are
invaded by neuroglia.
 Glial Cells & Neuronal Activity
• Glial cells are 10 times more abundant in the
mammalian brain than neurons;
• they surround both cell bodies and their axonal
and dendritic processes that occupy the
interneuronal spaces.
• Nerve tissue has only a very small amount of
extracellular matrix, and glial cells
• Provide microenvironment suitable for neuronal
activity.
 Oligodendrocytes
• Produce the myelin sheath
• electrical insulator of
neurons in the central
nervous system
• have processes that
wrap around axons,
producing a myelin
sheath.
 Schwann Cells
• Same function as
oligodendrocytes
• Located around axons in
the peripheral nervous
system.
• One Schwann cell forms
myelin around a segment
of one axon,
• Oligodendrocytes branch
and serve more than one
neuron and its processes.
 Astrocytes
• Star-shaped cells with multiple
radiating processes.
• have bundles of intermediate
filaments made of glial
fibrillary acid protein
– reinforce their structure.
• Astrocytes bind neurons
– to capillaries
– to the pia mater (a thin
connective tissue that covers the
central nervous system).
TYPES
• Fibrous astrocytes have few
long processes
– are located in the white
matter;
• Protoplasmic astrocytes,
with many short-branched
processes,
– found in the gray matter
• Astrocytes are by far the
most numerous glial cells
• exhibit an exceptional
morphological and
functional diversity.
 FUNCTION OF ASTROCYTES
• Support
• Control of ionic and chemical environment of neurons.
– Some astrocytes develop processes with expanded end feet
– that are linked to endothelial cells.
– transfer molecules and ions from the blood to the neurons.
– Expanded processes are also present at the external surface of the central
nervous system, where they make a continuous layer.
• Proliferate to form cellular scar tissue.
• Play a role in regulating the numerous functions of the central nervous
system.
• in vitro exhibit adrenergic receptors,
– amino acid receptors (eg, -aminobutyric acid [GABA]),
– peptide receptors (including natriuretic peptide, angiotensin II, endothelins,
vasoactive intestinal peptide, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone).
– The presence of these and other receptors on astrocytes enables them to
respond to several stimuli.
• Astrocytes can influence neuronal survival and
activity through their ability to regulate constituents
of the extracellular environment,
• absorb local excess of neurotransmitters,
• release metabolic and neuroactive molecules.
– include peptides of the angiotensinogen family,
– vasoactive endothelins,
– opioid precursors called enkephalins,
– and the potentially neurotrophic somatostatin.
• There is some evidence that astrocytes transport
energy-rich compounds from the blood to the
neurons
• And also metabolize glucose to lactate, which is then
supplied to the neurons.
• Finally, astrocytes are in direct communication with
one another via gap junctions,
– forming a network through which information can flow
from one point to another, reaching distant sites.
– For example, by means of gap junctions and the release
of various cytokines, astrocytes can interact with
oligodendrocytes to influence myelin turnover in both
normal and abnormal conditions.
 Ependymal Cells

• low columnar epithelial cells

• lining the ventricles of the brain and central
canal of the spinal cord.
• cells may be ciliated,
– Facilitates movement of cerebrospinal fluid.
 Microglia
• small elongated cells
with short irregular
processes
• Have dense elongated
nuclei on H&E
– contrast with the
spherical nuclei of other
glial cells.
• Phagocytic cells
– represent the mononuclear phagocytic system in nerve
tissue.
– derived from precursor cells in the bone marrow.
– Involved with inflammation and repair in the adult
central nervous system,
– they produce and release neutral proteases and
oxidative radicals.
– When activated, retract their processes
– assume the morphological characteristics of
macrophages,
– becoming phagocytic and acting as antigen-presenting
cells.
• Microglia secrete a number of immunoregulatory
cytokines
• Dispose unwanted cellular debris caused by central
nervous system lesions.