CHAPTER 2: Chemical bonding and properties of matter

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents

• properties of ionic and covalent compounds

▪ physical properties of ionic and covalent compounds based on
• solubility
• melting and boiling points
• volatility
• electrical conductivity in solid and molten states
▪ structural differences between ionic and covalent compounds
• comparing strength of electrostatic forces in covalent and
ionic compounds by heating sugar and common salt
• relating the physical properties such as melting point and
conductivity of ionic and covalent compounds to their
structure (lattice) and bonding
• bond polarity
▪ differentiate between polar and non-polar covalent bonds
• difference between pure covalent bond and dative covalent
bond in terms of electron sharing
• polarity of covalent bonds based on electronegativity
differences between the bonded atoms
• intermolecular forces
▪ types of intermolecular forces: hydrogen bonding and Van der
Waal’s forces
▪ effect of intermolecular forces on physical properties of covalent
compounds

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• allotropy and allotropes
▪ meaning of allotropy
▪ discussing allotropy using examples of oxygen, carbon and sulphur
• properties and uses of allotropes of carbon
▪ structure and physical properties of graphite and diamond
▪ uses of graphite and diamond in relation to their structure
▪ explaining the structure of silicon dioxide
▪ comparing properties of diamond and silicon dioxide
- hardness
- conductivity
- melting and boiling points
• properties and uses of metallic substances
▪ properties of metals
• conductivity of heat and electricity
• hardness
• ductility
• malleability
• Lustre
▪ relating the properties of metals to their uses
• physical properties of alloys
▪ meaning of the term alloy
▪ examples of alloys such as brass and stainless steel
▪ properties of alloys
▪ physical properties of alloys to those of their constituent elements
• Uses of alloys
▪ Uses of alloys eg in the manufacture of food cans, electric cables,
aircraft bodies, surgical instruments, cutlery, and car bodies

Properties of Ionic compounds

- Ionic compounds are electrolyte. They conduct electricity in solution or molten state.
- They have high melting and boiling points
- They are generally soluble in water.

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 - Ionic compounds are insoluble in organic solvents like benzene or propane
- They are usually crystalline solids. Ionic crystals are brittle

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

- They do not conduct electricity
- They have low melting and boiling points. Some covalent compounds such as
diamond and graphite have unusually high melting points. Others like large molecules
plastics and carbohydrates decompose before their melting points are reached.
- Most are insoluble in water
- They are soluble in organic solvent like benzene and propane
- Most of them are gaseous or volatile liquids at room temperature and pressure
- Most of them have scent

ELECTROSTATIC FORCES IN COVALENT AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

• When sugar and sodium chloride were heated in an experiment. Sugar quickly melted and
decomposed. Sodium chloride did not melt. This occurrence is due to the different
strength of the electrostatic forces between these two substances.
• Covalent bonds too exhibit ionic bonding character to some extent. This phenomenon is
due to an equal sharing of covalent bond electrons. The more electronegative atom tends
to pull the shared electrons towards itself creating partial negative charge on it. The less
electromagnetic atom become partially positive charged. This is what we referred to ionic
bonding character in covalent. This kind of ionic bonding is weak and does not cause
much increase in the strength of the bonds in covalent compounds.

SOLUBILITY AND VOLATILITY OF IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

• Substance that can dissolve in a particular solvent such as water is said to be soluble.
Different substances may dissolve in a range of solvents or specifically in one. Some
compounds do not dissolve at all.
• Sodium chloride, an ionic compound dissolves in water but does not dissolve in paraffin.
Water being a polar liquid was able to break down the ionic bond of sodium chloride
hence dissolves in it. Ionic compounds readily dissolves in water and other polar solvent
but do not dissolve in organic solvent such as paraffin.
• Water molecules being polar have partial positive charge and partial negative charge.
When ionic substance is placed in water there is strong attraction between the ions of
solute and polar ends of the water molecules. This causes the breakup of crystal lattice
structure and the ions are then surrounded by water molecules a process called hydration.

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 • Covalent compounds being non- polar readily dissolves in organic solvent. This is why
cooking fat dissolved in acetone but would not dissolve in water.
• A substance which evaporates readily (like acetone) at normal temperature and
atmosphere pressure is said to be volatile. Some organic solvents are highly volatile.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF COVALENT AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

• An aqueous solution which conduct electric current are called electrolytes. Liquids such
as acidified water, sodium chloride solution, mineral acids and copper (II) chloride
solution conduct electricity.
• These solutions have free ions which transfer (conduct) the electric current. The current
decomposes the electrolyte as it passes through it.
• Aqueous solutions such as sugar and urea do not conduct electricity. These are known as
non- electrolytes. They exist as discrete molecules that are the covalent bond does not
dissociate. This explains why the organic solvents such as ethanol and propanone are
non- conductors of electricity.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity. The only non-metal that conducts electricity is
graphite.
• They conduct electric current by means of free electrons. Other substances conduct
electric current in their molten (by means of ions) stake like solid lead (II) bromide.

STRUCTURE OF IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Structure of ionic compounds
The ions are arranged in a regular pattern forming a crystalline structure. The crystal lattice
consists of the appositively charged ions with strong electronic attraction between them. There is
alternating arrangement of cations and anions forming a giant ionic structure.

EFFECTS OF STRUCTURES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS ON THEIR PROPERTIES

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 i. The strong electrostatic attraction between the ions in the structure requires large
amount of heat to break down. This causes the high melting and boiling points of
ionic compounds.
ii. They are soluble in water. They are also slightly soluble in some organic solvents
such as ethanol, ether and benzene.
iii. They conduct electricity in a molten or aqueous state but not in solid state.
iv. The regular octahedral arrangement pattern of alternating anions and cations gives
them the rigid crystalline structure.

Structure of covalent compounds

• Covalent bonds exist in both elements (non- metallic) and molecular compounds.
Examples of covalent elements are sulphur, phosphorus, carbon and bromine.
• Covalent compounds include; ethanol, ethanoic acid, oils, ammonia and carbon
dioxide.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES IN COVALENT COMPOUNDS

i. Simple molecular structures
• In simple molecular structures, the atoms forming the molecules are held
together with strong covalent bonds while the molecules themselves are
attracted to one another by weak intermolecular forces called Van der Waal’s
forces or hydrogen bonds.
• Examples of substances with simple molecular structure are carbon dioxide,
oxygen, sulphur, water and iodine molecules.

Effects of simple molecules structure

- Low melting and boiling points
- They are non-polar and generally insoluble in water
- Since they exist as discrete molecules, they do not conduct electricity.
- The solids are soft due to the weak intermolecular force.
ii. Giant atomic structure
It is possible for many atoms to link up together forming chains of covalent bonds.
When this occurs, giant molecules are formed. Commonly known substances with
giant atomic structure are diamond, silicon dioxide and graphite. The atoms linking
up in the chain from very strong three dimensional structures except for graphite.

GRAPHITE
• The layers are joined by weak intermolecular forces and layers can easily slide over each
other. This makes graphite a soft and slippery substance. The fourth electron is often

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 delocalized. These delocalized electron s are mobile in the structure making a good
conductor of electricity.
• Graphite is used as lubricant, making of pencils, to reinforce metals and broken bones.
• It is also used as the positive terminals in dry cells and as electrodes in industry.

DIAMOND
• The four carbons are tetrahedrally arranged and the covalent bonds interlace forming a
tetrahedron structure. This makes the structure very strong and rigid. Diamond has no
free mobile electrons.

EFFECTS OF GIANT ATOMIC STRUCTURE ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE

SUBSTANCE
i. The substances generally have high melting and boiling points
ii. Because of the tetrahedral arrangement and interlacing of the bond, diamond is the
hardest known substances are used in making of drilling and cutting tools.
iii. Diamond and silicon dioxide have all their outermost electrons held in fixed
positions. Therefore they are very poor conductors of electricity.

COVALENT BONDS AND DATIVE BONDS

• In the case where the shared pair of electrons are equally donated by the atoms
involved, the bonding is referred to as normal or pure covalent bond.
• When only one of the atoms involved contributes all the shared pair of electrons then,
the bond formed is called dative covalent bond or simply as dative bond.
• Examples of dative bon ding occurs in the formation of ammonium ion. Nitrogen
atom in the molecule of ammonia having a lone pair of electrons donates to hydrogen
(H+) ion.

POLAR AND NON- POLAR COVALENT BONDS

When the covalent bond is formed between two identical atoms e.g. H-H or Cl-Cl, the
electrons are shared equally. If the atoms are not the same e.g. H-Cl, H-O or N-H, the
electrons contributed are usually not shared equally. There is an electron displacement
towards the more electronegative atom. The affinity or attracting power of atom to attract an
electron to form ion is called electronegativity.
The side to which the electrons are pulled more becomes partially negative while the other
end becomes partially positive. If this happens, in a molecule such as water it is said to be
polar.
The following are electronegativity values of some elements.

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 F 4.0
O 3.5
N 3.0 increase in electronegativity
C 2.5
H 2.1
The most electronegative elements is fluorine
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
➢ These are forces of attraction holding together molecules of substances.
➢ Examples of intermolecular forces
- Hydrogen bonding
- Van der Waals forces

HYDROGEN BONDING
The attraction between the partially negative atom and the partially positive hydrogen constitute
the hydrogen bond which is usually represented by a dotted line. Hydrogen bonding can also
occur between different molecules e.g. ammonia and water.
VAN DER WAALS FORCES
They increase with the mass of molecules, but between two molecules their effect is negligible.
Their accumulative effects significantly influence some physical properties of covalent
compounds e.g. organic compounds.
EFFECTS OF INTERMOLECULECULAR FORCES ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
i. Because hydrogen bonds have to be overcome during boiling, water has higher
boiling point compared to many other covalent compounds of similar mass.
ii. Surface tension of water is great due to hydrogen bonding among the water
molecules.
iii. Van der Waal’s forces significantly to the higher boiling and melting points for some
elements moving down the group.
iv. The presence of hydrogen bond between water molecules gives it the liquid state.
Without these bonds, water would exist in gaseous state at room temperature and
pressure.

ALLOTROPY

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Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form without change of state. The
various states are called allotropes. The allotropes exhibit different physical properties and
sometimes even varying chemical properties.
ALLOTROPES OF OXYGEN
Oxygen and ozone are allotropes. Ozone has a triatomic molecule and oxygen is a diatomic
molecule. Ozone can be made from oxygen. It can also be converted back to oxygen by heat.

Table: comparison between oxygen and ozone

Oxygen (O2) Ozone (O3)
1. Gas at room temperature Gas at room temperature
2. Density 16 (H=1) Density 24 (H=1)
3. Not attacked by heat Heat converts it to oxygen
4. Oxidising agent Very strong oxidizing agent
5. Not poisonous Poisonous
6. Does not react with potassium iodine Liberates iodine from potassium iodine
solution solution

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Table: comparison between diamond and graphite
Characteristics Diamond Graphite
Appearance Colourless transparent crystals Dark-grey, opaque and shining
that sparkle in light
Density Highest (3.5g/cm3) Moderate (2.3g/cm3)
Hardness Hardest natural substance known Soft and silvery
Electrical conductivity Does not conduct electricity Conducts electricity

Carbon exists as diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon. Diamond and graphite are
crystalline. The amorphous is largely non-crystalline. Amorphous carbon are in the form of
charcoal, soot or coke
MELTING AND BOILING POINTS OF METALS
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 • Metals generally have high melting and boiling points. This is due to the strong metallic
bonds between the fixed positive ions embedded in the ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons.
• However, sodium (and the group 1 elements) is an exception with a low melting of 980C.
This is because of the few delocalized electrons available for bonding decreasing the
strength of the metallic bonds in its structure.

DENSITY OF METALS
• Metals have high densities because of their giant metallic structures except for sodium
and group 1 metal. The atoms of metals are packed together very closely.

THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS.

• This is an easy movement of electrons in metals. These electrons explain the great
conducting power of solid or liquid metals for heat and electricity.
• When one end of the metal is heated, the heat is quickly felt on the other end because the
kinetic energy of delocalized electrons is increased, they vibrate much faster, move and
hit the nearby electrons resulting in the transfer of heat.
• A flow of electrons in a metal atom pushes the electrons nearest to it so that the entry of
one electron pushes out another electron to the opposite end of the metal. This leads to
conduction of electrical current.

DUCTILITY AND MALLEABILITY

- Most metals are ductile i.e. they are capable of being drawn out into wires. Ductility
involves slipping of the layers of atoms over each other when the metal is pulled or
hit.
- Most metals are also malleable i.e. they are capable of being hammered into thin
sheets.

USES OF METALS
COPPER
- It is very ductile
- It is an excellent heat conductor
- It is used in arrow heads and other tools which are required not to shutter.
- Used in jewellery and ornaments making

ALUMINIUM
- It is used in overhead power lines
- It is also used in making bodies and other parts of automobile

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 - Because of its shiny metallic lustre, it is widely used in jewellery and as food reflects
heat well keeping the food hot for a long time.
- Because of its light and good heat conductivity, aluminium is used in making most
cooking utensils.

ZINC
- It is used in batteries because of its good electrical conductivity.
- Many electrical appliances contain zinc.

IRON
- Because of its malleability, it is beaten into thin sheet in the making of roofing sheets,
cutting tools such as pangas and hoes.
- Its good heat and electrical conductivity finds useful application in heating appliances
such as iron box and cooking pans.

ALLOYS AND THEIR USES

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements one of which is a metal. An alloy is obtained by
mixing the base metal with a given element or elements to confer the desired quality of strength,
malleability, weight or hardness among others.

SOME OF THE IMPORTANT USES OF ALLOYS

i. Copper alloys are very tough. Hence they are used in tools, weapons jewellery and
ornament making.
ii. Duralumin, in alloy of aluminium with copper and smaller quantities of magnesium,
silicon and iron is very strong. Used in the manufacture of aircraft parts.
iii. Alloys of iron such as steel improves its tensile strength, lowering its brittleness,
makes it tough and hard. These qualities are desirable in making machinery, cutting
tools and iron forgery works

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