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Arunachala Medical Encyclopedia

BPT - Biomechanics
A – Mechanics

Biomechanics definition

• Biomechanics is the study of mechanical laws relating the structure of human body.
Or

• The study of mechanism in the human body is called as Biomechanics.

There are two main branches of Biomechanics. They are

• Kinematics and

• Kinetics
Kinematics Essay

• Kinematics is the area of biomechanics which describes the movement, without regarding the
forces producing the movement.
• Description of movement includes
1. Type of the movement
2. Location of the movement
3. Direction of the movement
4. Magnitude of the movement
5. Rate or Duration of the movement

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Kinetics

• Kinetics is the area of biomechanics which concentrates on the forces producing the movement
without regarding the description of movement.
• Kinematics – Movement
• Kinetics – force producing the movement.
Kinematical description of movements
1. Types of motion
There are four types of movement.
1. Rotatory or Angular motion
2. Translatory or linear motion
3. Gliding motion
4. Curvilinear motion
1. Rotatory or Angular motion
• Movement of a segment around a fixed axis in a curved path.
• Each point on the segment moves through the same angle, at the same time, at a constant distance
from the axis of rotation.
For Ex – Elbow flexion, in this each point on the hand or forearm segment moves through the same angle,
at the same time, at a constant distance

2. Translatory or linear motion

• Movement of a segment in a straight line.

• Each point on the segment moves through the same distance at the same
time.
For Ex – grasping a glass on the table, in this each point on the hand or forearm
segment moves through the same distance at the same time.
3. Gliding motion

• Articular surface of one bone moved parallel to the flat articular surface of
another bone
For Ex – Carpal bones

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4. Curvilinear motion

• The object rotates about an axis and moves through the space at the same
time.
For Ex
Outside the human body – A thrown ball. It is rotating and moving through the
space at the same time.
In human body – Hand segment holding a glass is rotating around the elbow joint,
while the elbow joint is moving in the space by shoulder flexion.
2. Location of movement
Location of movement includes
• The segment moving
• The joint moving and
• Plane of movement
• Axis of the movement.
Plane of movement 2mark
• Transverse plane – divides the body into upper and lower halves.
• Frontal plane – divides the body into front and
back halves.
• Sagittal plane – divides the body into right and
left halves.
Axis of movement 2mark
• Frontal axis – runs side to side in the body.
• Vertical axis – runs up and down in the body.
• Sagittal axis – runs front to back in the body.
Example - Elbow flexion
• Segment moving – forearm and hand
• Joint moving – elbow joint
• Plane of movement – sagittal plane
• Axis of movement – frontal axis
3. Direction of motion
• Flexion – rotation of bony of lever around a joint axis so that the ventral surfaces are being
approximated.

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• Extension – rotation of bony lever around a joint so that the dorsal surfaces are being
approximated.
• Generally, flexion and extension occur in the sagittal plane around coronal axis.
• Abduction – rotation of bony segment around joint axis so that the distal segment moves away
from the midline of the body.
• Adduction – rotation of bony segment around joint axis so that the distal segment moves towards
the midline.

• Lateral flexion - when the moving segment is a part of the midline of the body, then the movement
is referred as lateral flexion.
• Generally, adduction, abduction and lateral flexion occurs in the frontal plane and sagittal axis.

• Medial rotation – rotation of a bony segment towards the midline of the body.
• Lateral rotation – rotation of a bony segment away from the midline.
• Rotation to the right or rotation to the left - when the moving segment is a part of the midline of
the body, then the movement is referred as rotation to the right or rotation to the left.
• Generally, medial rotation, lateral rotation and rotation to the right and left occurs in the
transverse plane and vertical axis.

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4. Magnitude and duration of motion
• The magnitude of a rotatory movement can be given either in
degrees or in radians and the magnitude of a translator motion can
be given in inches.
• Magnitude of movement can also be described as number of degrees
per second. It is called as angular speed.
• Magnitude of movement can also be described as number of degrees
per second with direction of movement then it is called as velocity.
• Generally used device to measure the movement of a joint is
goniometer.
• A number of instruments is available now which allows the
documentation of joint movement as graph which represents the
magnitude of movement with time and direction.
Kinetics - Introduction to forces
• Kinematic descriptions of human movement permit us to visualize motion but do not give us an
understanding of why the motion is occurring.
• This requires a study of forces.
• Whether a body or body segment is in motion or at rest depends on the forces exerted on that
body.
• A force, simplistically speaking, is a push or a pull exerted by one object or substance on another.
• Any time two objects make contact, they will either push on each
other or pull on each other with some magnitude of force (although
the magnitude may be small enough to be disregarded).
• The unit for a force (a push or a pull) in the SI system is the newton
(N); the unit in the US system is the pound (lb).
A Force - Definition of Force 2mark
• Although a force is most simply described as a push or a pull, it is also described as a “theoretical
concept” because only its effects (acceleration) can be measured.
• Consequently, a force (F) is described by the acceleration (a) of the object to which the force is
applied, with the acceleration being directly proportional to the mass (m) of that object; that is,
Force = (mass) (acceleration)
Or
F = (m) (a)
A newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kg at 1 m/sec2
External forces
• External forces are pushes or pulls on the body that arise from sources outside the body.
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• Gravity (g), the attraction of the earth’s mass to another mass, is an external force that under
normal conditions constantly affects all objects.
• Examples of other external forces that may exert a push or pull on the human body or its segments
are
Wind (the push of air on the body),
Water (the push of water on the body),
Other people (the pushing or pulling each other),
And other objects (the pull of a weight boot on the leg).
Primary Rules of Forces
• All forces on a segment must come from something that is contacting that segment.
• Anything that contacts a segment must create a force on that segment (although the magnitude
may be small enough to disregard).
• Gravity can be considered to be “touching” all objects.
Internal forces
• Internal forces are forces that act on structures of the body and arise from the body’s own
structures (i.e., the contact of two structures within the body).
• A few common examples are the forces produced by
➢ The muscles (the pull of the biceps brachii on the radius),
➢ The ligaments (the pull of a ligament on a bone), and
➢ The bones (the push of one bone on another bone at a joint).
• Internal forces also control or counteract movement produced by external forces, as well as
counteracting other internal forces.
Force Vectors 2mark
• All forces, regardless of the source or the object acted on, are vector quantities.
• A force is represented by an arrow (vector) that
(1) Has its base on the object being acted on (the point of application),
(2) Has a shaft and arrowhead in the direction of the force being
exerted (direction/ orientation), and
(3) Has a length drawn to represent the amount of force being exerted (magnitude).
Figure shows John Alexander’s leg-foot segment.
• The weight boot makes contact with the leg-foot segment, the weight boot
must exert a force (in this case, a pull) on the segment.
• The force, called weight boot-on-leg foot (WbLf), is represented by a vector.
• The point of application is on the leg (closest to where the weight boot
exerts its pull); the action line and direction indicate the direction of the pull
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and the angle of pull in relation to the leg; and the length is drawn to represent the magnitude of
the pull.
• The force weight boot-on-leg foot is an external force because the weight boot is not part of the
body, although it contacts the body.
Figure shows the force of a muscle (e.g., the brachialis) pulling on the forearm-hand segment.
• The point of application is at the attachment of the muscle,
and the orientation and direction are toward the muscle (pulls
are toward the source of the force).
• The force is called muscle-on-forearm hand (represented by
the vector MFh).
• Although the designation of a force as “external” or “internal” may be
useful in some contexts, the rules for drawing (or visualizing) forces are
the same for external forces, such as the weight boot, and internal
forces, such as the muscle.
• The length of a vector is usually drawn proportional to the magnitude of
the force according to a given scale.
• For example, if the scale is specified as 5 mm = 20 N of force, an arrow of
10 mm would represent 40 N of force.
• The length of a vector, however, does not necessarily need to be drawn to scale (unless a graphic
solution is desired) as long as its magnitude is labelled.
Force of Gravity
Centre and Line of gravity 5mark
• As already noted, gravity is one of the most consistent and influential forces that the human body
encounters in posture and movement.
• For that reason, it is useful to consider gravity first when examining the properties of forces.
• As a vector quantity, the force of gravity can be fully described by point of
application, action line/direction/orientation, and magnitude.
• Unlike other forces that may act on a point or limited area of contact, gravity
acts on each unit of mass that composes an object.
• For simplicity, however, the force of gravity acting on an object or segment is
considered to have its point of application at the centre of mass or centre of
gravity (COG) of that object or segment—the hypothetical point at which all
the mass of the object or segment appear to be concentrated.
• Every object or segment can be considered to have a single centre of mass.
• In a symmetrical object, the centre of mass is located in the geometric centre of the object.

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• In an asymmetrical object, the centre of mass will be located
toward the heavier end.
• The crutch demonstrates that the centre of mass is only a
hypothetical point; it need not lie within the object being acted
on.
• Even when the centre of mass lies outside the object, it is still the
point from which the force of gravity appears to act.
• The actual location of the centre of mass of any object can be
determined experimentally by a number of methods.
• However, the centre of mass of an object can be approximated by thinking of it as the balance point
of the object (assuming you could balance the object on one finger).
• Although the direction and orientation of most forces vary with the source of the force, the force of
gravity acting on an object is always vertically downward toward the centre of the earth.

• The gravitational vector is commonly referred to as the line of gravity (LOG).

• The length of the line of gravity can be drawn to scale (as in a free body diagram, in which the
length is determined by its magnitude) or it may be extended (like any vector) when the
relationship of the vector to other forces, points, or objects is being explored.
• The line of gravity can best be visualized as a string with a weight on the end (a plumb line), with
the string attached to the centre of mass of an object.
Segmental Centres of Mass
• Each segment in the body can be considered to have its own centre of mass and line of gravity.
• Figure shows the gravitational vectors acting at the mass centres of the arm, the forearm, and the
hand segments (vectors GA, GF, and GH, respectively).
• We can group together two or more adjacent segments if they
are going to move together as a single rigid segment.
• When two gravity vectors acting on the same (now larger)
rigid object are composed into one gravitational vector, the
new common point of application (the new centre of mass) is
located between and in line with the original two segmental
centres of mass.
• The new vector will have the same effect on the combined forearm-hand segment as the original
two vectors and is known as the resultant force.

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• When the linked segments are not equal in mass, the new centre of mass will lie closer to the
heavier segment.
• The process of combining two or more forces into a single resultant force is known as composition
of forces.
• However when an object is composed of two or more linked and
movable segments, the location of the COG of the combined unit
will change if the segments are rearranged in relative to each
other.
• In figure, the arm segment and the forearm hand segment have
been rearranged. The new location of the COG still found on the
line between the original two.
Centre of Mass of the Human Body 5mark
• When all the segments of the body are combined and considered as a single
rigid object in anatomic position, the centre of mass of the body lies
approximately anterior to the second sacral vertebra (S2).
• The precise location of the centre of mass for a person in the anatomic position
depends on the proportions (weight distribution) of that person.
• If a person really were a rigid object, the centre of mass would not change its
position in the body, regardless of whether the person was standing up, lying
down, or leaning forward.
• Although the centre of mass does not change its location in the rigid
body as the body moves in space, the line of gravity changes its
relative position or alignment within the body.
• In Figure, the line of gravity is between the person’s feet (base of
support [BOS]) as the person stands in anatomic position; the line of gravity is parallel to the trunk
and limbs.
• If the person is lying down (still in anatomic position), the
line of gravity projecting from the centre of mass of the body
lies perpendicular to the trunk and limbs, rather than parallel
as it does in the standing position.
• In reality, of course, a person is not rigid and does not remain in anatomic position.
• Rather, a person is constantly rearranging segments in relation to each other as the person moves.

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• With each rearrangement of body segments, the location of the individual’s centre of mass will
potentially change.
• The amount of change in the location of the centre of mass depends on how disproportionately the
segments are rearranged.
Uses of Gravity in Therapeutics: 5mark
1. Traction Therapy - By using the force of gravity, traction devices gently pull the
spine, creating space between the vertebrae and alleviating pressure on nerves
and relieve pressure on the spine and reduce pain, particularly in conditions like
herniated discs or sciatica.
2. Inversion Therapy - The patient is inverted (head down, feet up) using an
inversion table. Gravity helps stretch the spine, reduce pressure on the spinal
discs, and improve blood flow to the brain.
3. Gravity-Assisted Exercises - Exercises like yoga, Pilates, and certain physical
therapy movements use gravity to challenge the muscles. For example, standing
poses in yoga use gravity to strengthen the legs and improve balance.
4. Lymphatic Drainage - Elevating the limbs above the heart level uses gravity to
help drain excess fluid from swollen areas, promoting lymphatic flow.
5. Postural drainage - The patient is positioned so that gravity helps drain mucus from the lungs'
airways, making it easier to cough up and expel in patients with respiratory conditions like cystic
fibrosis or bronchitis.
Centre of Mass, Line of Gravity, and Stability 5mark
• In Figure, the line of gravity (GABC) falls outside the football player’s left toes, which serve as his
base of support.
• The line of gravity has been extended (lengthened) to indicate its
relationship to the football player’s base of support.
• It must be noted that the extended vector is no longer proportional to
the magnitude of the force.
• However, the point of application, action line, and direction remain
accurate.
• By extending the football player’s line of gravity in Figure, we can see
that the line of gravity is anterior to his base of support; it would be
impossible for the player to hold this pose.
• For an object to be stable, the line of gravity must fall within the base of support.
• When the line of gravity is outside the base of support, the object will be unstable.
• As the football player moved from a starting position of standing on both feet with his arms at his
sides to the position, two factors changed.
• He reduced his base of support from the area between and including his two feet to the much
smaller area of the toes of one foot.
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• His centre of mass, with his rearrangement of segments, also has moved from S2 to above S2.
• Each of these two factors, combined with a slight forward lean, influenced the shift in his line of
gravity and contributed to his instability.
• When the base of support of an object is large, the line of gravity is less likely
to be displaced outside the base of support, and the object, consequently, is
more stable.
• When a person stands with his or her legs spread apart, the base is large side-
to-side, and the trunk can move a good deal in that plane without displacing
the line of gravity from the base of support and without the person falling
over.
• Whereas the centre of mass remains in approximately the same place within the body as the trunk
shifts to each side, the line of gravity moves within the wide base of support.
• Once again, it is useful here to think of the line of gravity as a plumb line.
• As long as the plumb line does not leave the base of support, the person will not fall over.
Alterations in Mass of an Object or Segment
• The location of the centre of mass of an object or the body depends on the distribution of mass of
the object.
• The mass can be redistributed not only by rearranging linked segments in space but also by adding
or taking away mass.
• People certainly gain weight and may gain it disproportionately in the body (thus shifting the centre
of mass).
• However, the most common way to redistribute mass in the body is to add
external mass.
• Every time we add an object to the body by wearing it (a backpack), carrying
it (a box), or holding it (a power drill), the new center of mass for the
combined body and external mass will shift toward the additional weight; the
shift will be proportional to the weight added.
• In this figure a cast has applied to the right lower limb.
• This resulted in the shift of COG down and to the right.
• Because his COG is now lower, he is theoretically more stable.
• But here his BOS has also been reduced, now it’s only his left foot as his right
leg is now non weight bearing.
• This makes him unstable.
• Thus, crutches are added, left foot combines with the crutches to form a
larger BOS, adding stability.
• In this figure, the man holding a heavy suitcase in his right hand.

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• This results in a shift of COG up and to the right, the LOG would move towards
the right foot to its lateral aspect.
• The man leans to the left to compensate this.
• The small rearrangements of segments caused by leaning the trunk relocates
the COG and brings the LOG from the right foot to the centre of base of support.
• The body segments are rearranging in space to swing back the LOG to the
centre of base of support.
Stability of an Object or the Human Body
• The larger the base of support of an object, the greater the stability of that object.
• The closer the object’s centre of mass is to the base of support, the more stable the object is.
• An object cannot be stable unless its line of gravity is located within its base of support.
Reaction forces
Newtons laws of motion Essay – There are three laws of motion.
Newton’s law of reaction
• When studying the source and application of forces, one must consider the critical property of
forces; that is, that force always comes in pairs.
Newton’s third law – the law of reaction
• Newton’s law states that “For every action there’s an equal and opposite reaction”
• It can be restated more clearly.
• When one object applies a force to the second object, the second object must simultaneously apply
a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the first object.
• These two forces on the two-contacting object constitutes an interaction pair or action-reaction
forces.
• For example, a force applied to object A arises from something touching the object A.
• If object A is touched by a hand, then the force on object A is applied by the hand.
• If so then the object A is also touching the hand, that mean the object
A also exerts a force with same magnitude and in opposite direction
(as long as one of the forces becomes larger to create movement)
• We already know that forces applied to an object come from things
touching that touching the object.
• Now we will expand the concept to say “Anything that touches an object will exert a force on the
object”.
• If object A is touching hand, object A also exerts a force on hand.
• If all forces come from things that touch and if all things that touch exerts a force on each other,
the any two-contacting object must exerts force on each other.
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• Newton noted this phenomenon and concluded that all forces come in pair that are equal in
magnitude, opposite direction, and applied to adjacent contacting object.
• The relation of action-reaction pairs to the concept of contacting objects allows us to refer the
reaction forces as contact forces.
• It is important to note that in any interaction pair the point of application are on the different
object, not on the same object.
• A book is resting on the table
• Whenever two objects are in contact, each exerts a force on
other.
• The book must exert a force on the table and the table must
exerts a force on the book.
• The magnitude will be equal and the vectors opposite in the
direction.
• The forces exerted would be named as book on table (BT) and table on book (TB).
• Vector BT is applied to the table, its source is a push from the book directed downwards with equal
magnitude regarding to the weight of the book.
• Vector TB is applied to the book, its source is push of the table directed upwards with equal
magnitude of the vector BT.
• The forces BT and TB can be referred to as action reaction pairs, reaction forces or contact forces.
• Because the force of gravity does not actually touch the object, one might think that gravity or
force of earth on another object does not have a mate.
• Gravity also has a reaction force.
• The earth exerts an attraction on all objects, likewise these objects exerts an attraction for the
earth in opposite direction.
• The attraction of small object on earth is negligible compared to the attraction of larger earth for
the small object.
Equilibrium introduction
• It is possible to have forces applied to an object without causing movement of the object.
• Statistics is the study of condition under which object remain in equilibrium(rest) as a result of
forces acting on them.
Newtons law of inertia
• Newtons first law, the law of inertia, deals with object in equilibrium.
• The law states that, the object will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted by an
unbalanced force.
• When dealing human body and its segments meaning of equilibrium can be simplified to mean an
object at rest.
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Newtons law of inertia or law of equilibrium can be restated that
• For an object to be in equilibrium, the sum of all the forces applied to that object must be zero.
Determining equilibrium of an object
• A book resting on the table
• Assuming that the book is in equilibrium (it remains at rest on the table)
• We know that gravity acts on all objects.
• Therefore, gravity must be acting on the book at the books COG with a magnitude proportional to
the mass of the book.
• Vector GB –gravity on book.
• We already know that object with only one force cannot be in equilibrium, at least one other force
must exist on the book
• Also know that, whenever objects touch each other, they exerts force on each other.
• Here the book is being touched by the table, therefore table must me exerting a force on the book.
• Vector TB – table on book.
• So now here nothing else is touching the book, so there are no other forces to consider.
• Vector TB and GB are applied to the same object at the same point and their action lines lies on the
same line. Such forces are called as linear force system.
Linear force system exits
• Whenever two or more forces acting on the same object in the same line.
• Linear forces cause translatory motion, the magnitude of the linear forces are given signs using the
conventions previously translator forces.
• Forces applied up or to the right are considered positive.
• Forces applied to the down or left are considered negative.
• The net effect or resultant of all the forces that are a part of same linear force system can be
determined by finding the arithmetic sum of magnitude of each forces in the same linear force
system, taking into account of its positive or negative value.
• If the book weighed 2.5lb, GB would be -2.5lb. TB would have a magnitude of +2.5lb.
TB + GB = (+2.5) + (-2.5) = 2.5 – 2.5 = 0
• In this figure, the hand segment of the man holding a briefcase is in equilibrium.
• The hand segment is touched by gravity, by the briefcase and by the forearm segment.
• Thus, the vectors of hand are

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GH – gravity on hand
BH – briefcase on hand
FH – forearm on hand
• All these three forces are acting on the same action line on the hand, hence
they are parts of the same linear force system.
• The forces GH and BH are acting downwards thus they are represented as
negative forces.
• The force FH is acting upwards and thus represented as positive force.
• The magnitude of GH is equal to the weight of the hand. For example, 2lb.
• The magnitude of BH can be measured according to the weight of the briefcase, if nothing else is in
contact with the briefcase and the briefcase is in equilibrium.
• For example, the weight of the briefcase is 8 lb so the gravity is pulling the briefcase with the
magnitude of -8lb which is now acting on hand as BH.
• If the hand is in equilibrium, the magnitude of two downward forces GH and BH, must be equal to
the magnitude of the only upward force acting on the hand, the FH.
SO, GH + BH = FH
(-2lb) + (-8lb) = +10lb
• In the figure, a person is standing on a scale to record his weight, gravity on person.
• The scale cannot measure the force applied to the person but can the force have applied to the
scale.
Objects in motion
• When a state of equilibrium exists, all forces applied to the object are balanced.
• That means the sum of all forces applied on the object is zero.
• When an unbalanced force applied to an object, then acceleration of the object will occur.
• In the picture three people are pulling on a rope.
• Person A and person B are exerting a force of 100 lb each
on the rope in one direction.
• Person C is exerting a force of 90 lb in opposite direction.

• All the three forces acting along the rope are in the dame
line, thus they are a part of the same linear force system.
• The peoples are the only objects that is contacting the rope and the force of gravity is very
negligible on the rope as it is very light.
• Now the net force on the rope R is the sum of all the forces acting on the rope
R = P1 + P2 + P3

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R = (+100) + (+100) + (-90) = +110 lb
• The net effect of forces on the rope causes the rope to move towards right (positive direction).
• Once an object begins to accelerate, new forces are introduced and kinetic analysis are far more
complex.
• We will maintain a simplified approach that will not involve more advanced concepts in dynamics.
Newton’s law of acceleration 2mark
• The magnitude of acceleration of a moving object is defined by newton’s second law, the law of
acceleration.
• Newton’s second law states that,
• Acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the unbalanced force applied on it and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
a = F/m
• That is, a large push (F) applied to an object of constant mass (m) will produce more acceleration (a)
than a small push.
• A push on an object of large mass will produce less acceleration than an equal push on an object of
smaller mass.
• From the law of acceleration, it can be seen that inertia (a objects resistance to acceleration) is
proportional to the mass of the object of the body.
• The greater the mass of an object, greater magnitude of force
is needed to get the object moving.
• A very large women in a wheel chair has more inertia than a
small woman, the helper must exert a greater push on the
wheelchair with large women than the wheelchair with small
women to obtain the same acceleration.
Joint distraction in a linear force system
• Knowledge of the principles of newton’s law and linear force
system can be used to understand how skeletal traction are
produced in joint distraction.
• The figure shows skeletal traction applied to the leg.
• We will see how hanging a 10lb weight on this pulley system produces separation between the tibia
and the femur at knee joint.
• Follow each force carefully as it is described.
• We will begin by assuming that the objects in the figure are all in equilibrium.
Gravity on weight (GW) - -10 lb.
Rope on weight (RW) - +10 lb.
Weight on rope (WR) (T1) – 10 lb
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Leg on rope (LR) - -10LB.
Rope on leg (RL) - +10 lb.
Ligament on leg (LgL) - -10 Lb.
Leg on ligament (LLg) - +10 lb.
Femur on ligament (FLg) - -10 lb.
• Vertical forces will be ignored, we will only consider the horizontal forces acting on the leg or femur
segment.
• The ligaments will be slack when the weight is first put on the traction system because the femur
and the leg bones are close to each other (our aim is to separate them).
• This unbalanced force is acting on the leg and will cause the movement of the leg towards right.
• As the leg moves to the right, the tension in the ligaments will increase as the bones separates.
• Once the ligaments are pulled taught by the movement of the leg, the ligaments are capable of
exerting the 10 lb force needed to establish equilibrium of the leg.
• Here in the case of distraction of knee joint, muscles forces are not
involved because the, muscles are not in action here.
• But in cases of fracture, the process of distraction of bone fragments
required for proper alignment of the fractured fragments and
healing.
• Here in this case, the spot of fracture act like a joint and the muscles that cross the
bone acts like ligaments.
• At first when the fracture occurred, overactivity of the muscle pulls the distal
fragment of bone towards the proximal fragment.
• When traction is applied to realign the bones the muscle spasm subsides and the
muscle will get fatigue over a period of time.
• Equilibrium is established here when the structures and muscles crossing the fracture
site becomes taut.
FORCE OF FRICTION
• When two objects are in contact with each other and when the surface of one object is moving on
the surface of other object, force of friction is created.
Definition of shear force 5mark
• The force that moves or tends to move one object on other is called as
shear force.
• And shear force is applied parallel to the contacting surfaces in the
direction of the attempted movement.

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• The magnitude of the force of friction between two moving objects depends on the magnitude of
contact between the objects and the slipperiness or roughness of the contacting surfaces.
• A heavier object generally has a greater magnitude than a lighter object.
• The greater the contact force on an object and the rougher the contacting surfaces, the greater the
maximum the friction force.
• When you are rubbing your hands together there created force of friction, which warms both the
hand.
• The friction is activated only when if a shear force is applied to any one of the object to move them.
• So the magnitude of the force of friction is referred as maximum potential force.
• It can be calculated as
• Fx = (coeff of static friction) (magnitude of contact force)
• In the figure a large box weighing 100 lb is resting on the floor.
• The maximum potential force of friction of the box is the product of
coefficient static friction of wooden box on wooden floor(0.25) and
the contact or reaction force of floor on box (100 lb).
Fx = (0.25) (100)
Fx = 25lb
• Force of friction in this instance can only increase up to a magnitude of 25 lb of force to the right.
• A shear force of more than 25 lb towards the left will cause the box to move towards left as there is
an unbalanced forced acting on the box towards left.
• The magnitude of force for objects that are not moving depends on the magnitude of the shear
force.
• The maximum magnitude of a force of friction Fx is calculated as the product of a constant known
as the coefficient of static friction (μs) and the reaction or contact force(Fc) exerted by the
contacting object.
Fx ≤ μs Fc
• The coefficient of static friction is a constant value for given materials
• For example, μs for ice on ice is 0.05 and for wood on wood is 0.25.
• As the contacting surfaces becomes rougher, the μs increases.
• The contact force increases with the magnitude of contact of the adjacent objects.
• A heavier object generally has a greater magnitude of contact with an object beneath than a lighter
object.
• The greater the contact force on an object and the rougher the contacting surfaces, the greater the
maximum potential friction force.

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• When you are rubbing your hands together there created force of friction, which warms both the
hand (it means the force of friction exists on both the contacting surfaces)
Composition of forces
• In the figure man A and man B are each pulling on the block at a right angle to each other with a
force of 75lb each.
• The action lines man A on block B (AB) and the action line man B on
block B (BB) are in different directions but commonly applied to
through the centre of gravity of the block.
• Now the net effect or resultant action of the two pulls will be in a line
that’s in between the two men.
• The figure shows graphical solution of the problem by polygon method.
• Vector AB and BB are drawn to a scale with common point of application, maintaining the angle 90
degree between them.
• Now line AB1 is drawn parallel to the vector AB from the end of the vector BB.
• Again a line BB1 is drawn parallel to the vector BB from the end of the vector AB.
• Thus this forms a polygon.
• The resultant force is diagrammed with its point of application at the intersection of AB and BB.
• Its action line and magnitude are drawn so that the arrowhead lies at the intersection of lines AB1
and BB1.
• The resultant vector is always the diagonal of the polygon formed by the original two vectors.
• The net effect of forces AB and BB would be 106.25 lb.
• Note that the resultant force is not equal to the sum of the forces applied and the block can be
pulled more efficiently if a single force of 106.25 lb is applied in the direction of R rather than two
divergent forces of 75 lb each.
Concurrent force system 5mark
• Forces applied to an object are not in the same line but have action
lines that lies at an angle to each other are called as concurrent force
system.
• Two or more forces applied to the same object can also be a part of
same concurrent force system when the vectors have different point
of application on the object as long as the vectors intersect when
extended in length.
• The net effect, or resultant of concurrent forces appear to occur at the point of intersection and can
be represented by a single new through the process known as composition of forces.
Muscle action lines
Total muscle force vectors

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• Each muscle fibre can be represented as a vector
• The fibres taken together form a concurrent force system with a
resultant that’s the total muscle force vector Fms.
• Fms has a point of application at the attachment of the muscle
and an action line that is the direction of the resultant pull of all
the muscles fibre.
• The direction of pull for all muscles is towards the centre of the
muscle.
• The actual force of active pull of either individual muscle fibres or the total force muscle cannot be
determined in the living person.
Divergent muscle pull
• The concept of concurrent force system can be used to determine the
resultant of two or more segments of one muscle, or two muscles when the
muscles have a common attachment.
• The figure shows the resultant force of the anterior portion of the deltoid
muscle (AD) and the resultant force of the posterior portion of the deltoid
muscle (PD) acting on the humerus.
• Using the polygon method of composition of forces, the resultant force
vector for the constructed polygon is vector R.
• Vector R, therefore represents the vector sum of AD and PD.
• The deltoid muscle is also composed of middle segment (MD) that is located
between AD and PD.
• Because R and MD coincide and have a common point of application, they
are a part of a linear force system.
• The resultant in a linear force system is found by finding the arithmetic sum
of vectors R and MD, that is, the new resultant vector Fms will be equal to
the magnitude R + MD and in the same direction.
• Vector Fms represents the total pull of the three segments of the deltoid, producing abduction of
the arm as the muscle exerts a force on humerus.
What is PULLEY?
• Pulley is a simple mechanical device that is used to alter the direction of the
force applied without altering its magnitude.
ANATOMICAL PULLEYS 5mark
• Frequently the fibers of a muscle or a muscle tendon wrap around a
bone or are deflected by a bone prominence.
• The bone or bony prominence causing the deflection forms an
anatomic pulley and the direction of pull of a muscle is altered.

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• Pulleys change the direction without changing the magnitude of the applied
force.

• A schematic representation of the shoulder is shown on the diagram, treating

as a link between two straight levers.
• The deltoid muscle force vector (Fms) for abduction of the arm has been
drawn as it would exist in this situation.
• This figure represents more anatomical representation of the shoulder,
including the rounded head of the humerus, and the overhanging acromion
with the clavicle.
• These anatomical features change the direction of the deltoid muscle.
• The action line direction of Fms are significantly different between the two
diagrams, although the point of application and magnitude of the force are
the same.
• The patella, as an anatomical pulley, deflects the action line of the
quadriceps femoris muscle away from the joint center, increasing the angle
of pull on the tibia to enhance the ability of the quadriceps to generate
extension torque
• Lister's tubercle or the dorsal tubercle of the radius is a bony protuberance
on the dorsal surface of the distal radius.
PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEM / Levers Essay

• A parallel force system exists whenever two or more parallel forces act on the same lever but at
some distance from each other and at some distance from the axis about which the lever will
rotate.
• Each of the forces in a parallel force system will create rotation of
the lever about its axis.
• To further understand the effect that parallel force systems have on
the rigid lever of the skeleton; we need to examine the principle
levers.
FIRST- CLASS LEVERS

• A first-class lever system exists whenever two parallel forces (or parallel resultant forces) are
applied on either side of an axis at some distance from that axis, creating (or tending to create)
rotation of the lever in opposite direction.
• A first- class lever is commonly exemplified by a seesaw.
• The lever, or seesaw, is being subjected to four forces (because four things touch the lever).
• These are the contact of man A, the contact of man B, the contact
of wedge, and the contact of gravity.
• Wedge- on seesaw (WS) and gravity-on-seesaw (GS) are applied to
the COG of the seesaw and are part of a linear force system.
• Because these two force do not lie at a distance from each other
or do not lie at some distance from the axis we will ignore them
for the moment and focus on the effect of vectors A and B.

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• Assuming that the seesaw is going down on the side of man B
• Force B has been renamed the effort (EF).
Effort force - the force that is causing the rotation of lever. Force A
has been labeled the resistance force (R).
Resistance force - force that is opposing the rotation of the lever (pulling in a direction opposite to the
rotation that is occurring).
Effort arm (EA) – distance between the effort force from the axis.
Resistance arm (RA) - distance between the resistance force and the axis.

• In a first- class lever, EA may be greater than, smaller than, or equal to

RA because the axis may be located anywhere between the effort force
and the resistance force without changing the classification of the lever.
• The human body has relatively few first-class levers.
• Two parallel forces acting on the forearm lever; one is the force of the
triceps at the olecranon, creating a clock-wise rotation, and the other is
a resultant external force pushing up on the forearm in a
counterclockwise direction.
• This constitutes a first- class lever.
• If the forearm were to extend, the triceps brachii would be the effort force.
• If the external force overcame the triceps force and the forearm flexed, the external force would be
the effort.
SECOND- CLASS LEVER

• A second- class lever exists whenever two parallel

forces (or parallel resultant forces) are applied at
some distance from the axis, with the resistance force
applied closer to the axis than the effort force.
• In a second- class lever EA is always greater than RA.
• The action of triceps surae (gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris)
lifting the body around the axis of the toes (metatarsophalangeal
joints).
• The superimposed body weight acting on the foot through the
LOG is the resistance (R).
• Because the muscles are the effort and the body weight is the
resistance, a second-class lever system is formed.
•
THIRD- CLASS LEVERS

• A third- class lever exists whenever two parallel forces (or

parallel force components) on a lever are applied so that the
effort force lies closer to the axis of the lever than the
resistance.

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• In a third- class lever, EA will always be smaller than RA.
• An example of a third- class lever system with the biceps brachii
performing flexion of the forearm/hand segment against the
resistance of gravity.
• Because the biceps force is labeled as EF, the rotation must be
occurring in the direction of the biceps force.
• Gravity is opposing the motion and is labeled R.
TORQUE 5mark 2mark
• The ability of any force to cause rotation of the lever is known as torque or moment of force.
• Torque (T) is a product of the magnitude of the applied force (f) and the distance (d) that force lies
from the axis of rotation.
• T = (F)(d)
• Assume that the biceps brachii (EF) is contracting with a force of 120lb
applied at a distance (EA) of the 1 inch from the axis.
• The weight of the forearm segment (R) is 100 lb and the COG of the
segment lies 10inches (RA) from the axis.
T(EF) = (F)(EF)
T(EF) = (120) (1)
T(EF) = 120 in-lb
T(R) = (F)(RA)
T(R) = (10)(10)
T(R) = 100 in-lb
• The biceps brachii exerts a torque of 120 in –lb on the forearm in a counter clockwise or positive
direction.
• The torque exerted by gravity is 100 in-lb in a clockwise or negative direction.
• The net rotation (or resultant torque) of a lever can be determined by finding the sum of all the
torque acting on the lever (maintaining appropriate positive and negative signs).
• When the sum of all the torque is zero, the torques are balanced and the lever will not rotate.
Net torque = (EF) + (RF)
= (+120) + (-100)
= 20 lb
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE 5mark
• Mechanical advantage (M Ad) is a measure of the efficiency of the lever.
M Ad = EA/RA
• When the EA is larger than the resistance arm RA, M Ad will be greater than 1.
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M Ad = EA/RA
= 10/5 = 2
• When the M Ad is greater than 1, the magnitude of the effort force can be smaller than the
magnitude of the resistance and still win.
Mechanical Advantage of all the three class levers
• In all second-class levers, the M Ad of the lever will always be greater than 1. The magnitude of the
effort force can be less than the magnitude of the resistance.
• In all third- class levers, the M Ad of the lever will always be less than 1. The magnitude of the effort
force must be greater than the magnitude of the resistance for the effort to produce greater
torque.
• First- class levers follow no rules relative to M Ad. EA can be greater than, less than, or equal to RA.
It is level dependent.

MOMENT ARM OF FORCE

• The lever arm is the distance from the point of
application of the force to the joint axis.
• The moment arm (MA) is always the shortest distance
between the action line of a force and the joint axis.
• When a force is applied at 90° to a segment, the MA
and the lever arm (LA) are equivalent.
• At all other angles, as shall be seen, the MA will be smaller than the LA.
MOMENT ARM OF A MUSCLE FORCE
• The muscle vector of the biceps brachii is shown
schematically as it applies a force to the forearm
with the elbow joint at 35°, 70°, 90° and 145° of
elbow flexion.
• As the angle of application of the force changes, so
does the length of the MA.
• The MA would appear to be smallest in fig.a and
largest in fig.b .

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• The MA of any force will be largest when the force is applied at 90° to the lever.
• When the MA is greatest the torque production by a force will be at its maximum.
• If the force of the biceps contraction is a constant 50 lb throughout the elbow range of motion, the
torque will change in direct proportion to the change in the MA of the force.
• When the goal of a muscle is either to rotate a segment or to resist its rotation, the muscle is
biomechanically most effective at the point in range at which muscle is capable of generating the
greatest torque; that is, the point at which the MA of the muscle is greatest.
MOMENT ARM OF GRAVITY
• Figure shows some ranges of elbow flexion with the force
of gravity applied to the forearm lever at its COG.
• As the angle of application of the LOG changes with the
position of forearm, so does the length of the MA.
• As is true for all forces, the MA of the force of gravity is
greatest when the force is applied at 90° to the lever.
• When a body lever is parallel to the ground, gravity acting
on that segment exerts its maximum torque.
Anatomical pulleys
• We already know that; anatomical pulleys change the direction of a muscle force but not its
magnitude.
• However, the change in direction of the muscle force results in
improved ability of the muscle to produce torque.
• The change in direction of action line of a muscle in an anatomical
pulley is always away from the joint axis, thus it increases the MA
of the muscle force.
• For example – the figure shows a schematic diagram that
represents the quadriceps muscle acting on tibia without and with patella.
• Thus, anatomical pulley changes the direction of pull of a muscle.
• Anatomical pulley deflects the line of a muscle away from the joint axis, thus increasing the MA of
the muscle and consequently the ability of a muscle to produce torque.
Rotational and linear equilibrium
• A limb segment of the body is called as lever here.
• When a limb segment in the body does not move, it means it is in both rotational and linear
equilibrium.
• For a lever to be in rotational equilibrium, sum of all the torques applied to the lever must be zero.
• For a lever to be in linear equilibrium, sum of all the forces applied on the lever must be zero.
Joint reaction force 2mark
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• The force exerted by one segment of the joint on the other segment of the joint during joint
compression is called as joint reaction force.
• For example – during knee extension, contraction of quadriceps muscle causes a compression of
knee joint results in contact between two bones.
• Once tibia and femur contact, two forces are introducing, they are
• Tibia on femur (TF) and
• Femur on tibia (FT)
• These two forces are the forces exerted by one segment of the joint on another, thus they are
called as joint reaction forces.

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THE TAMIL NADU DR. M.G.R MEDICAL UNIVERSITY
BPT Biomechanics - Chapter wise arranged previous year question papers 2009 - 24
A. Mechanics
Essays
1. Discuss in detail the kinematic variables that describe the motion.
2. Describe in detail about Newton’s laws of motion.
3. Explain three orders of Levers with examples. Add a note on mechanical advantage.
5 Marks

1. Centre of gravity and Line of gravity.

2. Calculation of centre of gravity of the body.
3. Centre of gravity and its application.
4. Gravity its uses in therapeutics.
5. Law of inertia.
6. Explain Newton’s law of inertia with example.
7. Shear force.
8. Concurrent force system.
9. Anatomical pulley.
10. Torque.
11. Mechanical advantage - therapeutic use.
2 Marks
1. Axes and planes.
2. Force vectors.
3. Newtons second law / Law of acceleration
4. Components of force.
5. What are joint reaction forces?
6. Define torque.

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