DEPARTMENT OF TRAINING

VERBAL ABILITY MATERIAL

BASIC
GRAMMAR
 PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in English.

A part of speech is a category into which one places a word depending on how it functions
in a sentence.
The same word may be different parts of speech, depending on the word’s use in the
sentence.

Examples: I have a part in the play. (“part” is a noun.)

I part my hair on the left. (“part is a verb.)
My dog is part collie. (“part” is an adjective.)
My mother gave me a ring. (“ring” is a noun.)
I will ring the doorbell. (“ring” is a verb.)
Do you have a ring holder? (“ring” is an adjective.)

This is the fast lane. (“fast” is an adjective.)

The man runs very fast. (“fast” is an adverb.)

Only a close examination of what a word is doing in a sentence reveals its part of speech.

Parts of speech:

Names: Noun
Pronoun

Modifiers: Adjective
Adverb

Action/State of Being: Verb

Mortar of a Sentence: Prepositions

Conjunctions

Exclamation: Interjection
 1. THE NOUN

The noun (Latin nomen = name) is the name of:

A person (Ram; Stalin; Mustafa)
A place (Mumbai, New York City)
A thing (tree, frog, walnut)
A quality (beauty, happiness, courage)
An activity (swimming, praying, speaking) = GERUND
A concept (friendship, Communism, materialism, spirituality)
A condition (peace, security, joy)

Types of Nouns:
Common: the label for any member of a category
(man, novelist, country, soup, city, religion)
In English, one never capitalizes a common noun.
Proper: the label for a specific member of a category
(Ratan Tata, Chetan Bhagat, India, Chicken Soup,
Hyderabad, Buddhism)
Abstract: the name of a non-tangible thing, an idea
(violence, empathy, catastrophe)
Concrete: the name of something one can sense
(aroma, fire, violin)
General: the broad term naming all members of a group (like a common
noun) (weapon, dwelling, fruit, furniture)
Specific: the name of a particular member of a group
(sword, apartment, grape, sofa)
Collective: the name of a group, written as a common noun and in the
singular (committee, jury, army, club, team, class, murder of
crows, pride of lions, stack of notes, pile of chairs)
Collective nouns may be consistently singular (referring to a
unit) or consistently plural (referring to individuals.)

Gender of Nouns:
Since the Middle Ages (since about 1300), English nouns have natural gender,
reflecting the sex of the individual:
Males have masculine gender: actor, man, boy, aviator, bull, rooster.
Females have feminine gender: actress, woman, girl, aviatrix, cow, hen
Sexless objects have neuter gender: tree, box, book, floor, chair
Terms applying to males and females have common gender: worker, friend, worker, student,
assistant)
Note: So-called “sexist” nouns containing the word “man: (chairman, fireman, mailman)
traditionally apply to either sex and are common nouns, as is the word “man: when
referring to the human race.
Number of Nouns:

Nouns may be singular (referring to one) or plural (referring to more than one)
Most nouns form their plural by adding “s” to the singular: (hat = hats;
duck = ducks; name = names)
Nouns ending in a sibilant (s,z,sh,ch,x) form their plural by adding “es” to the singular
(class = classes; bushes = bushes; church = churches; ax = axes)
Nouns ending in a consonant + y change the y to i form their plural by adding “es” to
the singular (spy = spies; country = countries

- Some nouns for their plurals irregularly:

man = men
woman = women
goose = geese
ox = oxen
child = children
foot = feet
tooth = teeth
- English is an eclectic language, taking words and even their plurals from other
languages: [Note: Use a good dictionary for unfamiliar nouns.]
Latin datum = data
bacterium = bacteria
medium = media
alumnus = alumni
alumna = alumnae
stratus = strata
Greek: criterion = criteria
phenomenon = phenomena
crisis = crises
psychosis = psychoses
 - Collective nouns may be singular or plural, but once one settles on a number,
he must be consistent in using that number:
Correct: The committee is finished with its work. It adjourned.
The committee are finished with their work. They adjourned.
Incorrect: The committee is finished with their work. They adjourned.

Possessive Case:
Used to show ownership. In the noun, the possessive case is the only case with a distinct
ending added to the noun.
-usually, add ‘s’ to a singular noun to form the possessive case:
Bill= Bill’s
poet= poet’s
goddess= goddess’s

-if the singular noun ends in “s” one may form the possessive either with ‘s’ or just the
apostrophe:
Mr. Marks= Mr. Marks’s or Mr. Marks’
Pythagoras = Pythagoras’s or Pythagoras’
Santa Claus = Santa Claus’s or Santa Claus’
-for plural nouns ending in “s,” add just the apostrophe for the possessive case;
boys= boys’
classes= classes’
 2. THE PRONOUN

The pronoun (L. pro nomine = for the noun) is a word substituting for a noun or
another pronoun.
Raju said that Raju would be late.
Raju said that he would be late. (The pronoun “he” substitutes for the noun “Raju.” “Raju”
is the antecedent of “he.”)

Number: Like nouns, pronouns can be singular (I, one, he, she, it) or plural (we, they).

Gender: Like nouns, pronouns have natural gender, meaning that the pronouns and nouns
have a gender based on the sex of the person or thing to which they refer:
Masculine pronouns denote males (he, him, his); Feminine pronouns
denote females (she, her, hers);
Neuter pronouns denote inanimate or non-human things (it, its);
Common gender pronouns refer to males, females, and inanimate objects (they,
them, one).

Person: The concept of person in verbs and pronouns refers to which role the verb or
pronoun identifies in the act of communication.
FIRST PERSON (I, me, my, we, us, our, ours) denotes the speaker when referring to himself.
SECOND PERSON (you, your, yours, thou, thee, thy, thine, ye) denotes the person being
spoken to.
THIRD PERSON (he, him, his, she, her, hers, one, it, its, they, their, theirs, them) denotes
the person(s) or thing(s) being spoken about.

Types of Pronouns:
Personal: refer to the three persons involved in communication
(See concept of Person above) (I, you, he, she, it, etc.)
Impersonal: refer to non-humans ( it, they)
Relative: refer to a person or thing, begin a dependent clause, and
relate that person or thing in the dependent clause to
a noun or pronoun in the rest of the sentence (who, whom,
whose, which, what, that)
(Example: My doctor whom I trust fell out of bed and
died.)
Demonstrative: point to something (this, these; that, those)
Interrogative: ask questions (who? which? what? whose? whom?)
Reflexive: repeat or intensify the antecedent (I myself; he himself;
she herself; you yourself; they themselves; we ourselves)
Reciprocal: express mutual action or relationship (each other; one
another)
Indefinite: refer to no specific person or thing:
Singular: another anyone, anybody, anything
someone, somebody, something
everyone, everybody, everything
none, nobody, nothing
each, either, neither
Plural: several, some, many, few, all (at times)
 3. THE ADJECTIVE

The adjective (Latin adjectivum = added to) describes, modifies, alters, specifies our
understanding of a noun or pronoun.

Brilliant birds flew by. (“Brilliant” describes and specifies the birds.)
The children are sad. (“Sad” describes the children.)
The people, who were bathing in the river, drowned. (The clause describes the people and is
an adjective clause.)
Potatoes from Bengal taste best. (The phrase describes the potatoes and is an adjective
phrase.)
Running up the stairs, The character tripped, fell down, broke her toe, and died. (The phrase
describes the character and is an adjective phrase.)

***To identify the adjective, take a noun or pronoun and ask, “What kind?” and the
answer, be it a word, phrase, or clause, is an adjective.
The woman with the purple hair band won the prize.
(The underlined phrase describes the noun “woman” and answers the question, “What kind
of woman?”)

Those in the shelf are the records which I need.

(The underlines phrases are adjective phrases. “In the shelf” answers the question, “What
kind of those?” and “which I need” answers the question, “What kind of records?”)

****The articles (a, an, the) are always adjectives.

In English, the normal position of the adjective is before the noun it modifies:
The broken window let in the cold air.
Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives (and adverbs) have three degrees

-Positive (an adjective describes one thing and offers no comparison): sweet,
fine, intelligent, beautiful)

-Comparative (an adjective compares two things only):

sweeter, finer, more intelligent, less beautiful
(Use “more” or “less” in the comparative degree if the adjective has more
than two syllables; sometimes, either form is acceptable: costlier, more
costly.)

-Superlative (an adjective compares more than two things):

sweetest, finest, most intelligent, least beautiful
(Use “most” or “least” in the superlative degree if the adjective has more
than two syllables.)

Irregular Comparatives: good, better, best

well, better, best
bad, worse, worst
little, less, least

Absolute Adjectives: These adjectives never compare because they identify

characteristics a person or thing either has or does not
have; there are no degrees:

dead alive
pregnant full
empty unique
complete perfect

Avoid Double Comparatives or Double Superlatives:

Never use more than one form of the comparative or superlative degree in a sentence:

Wrong: I am more happier than you.

Right: I am happier than you.
Wrong: This is the most sweetest fruit I ever tasted
Right: This is the sweetest fruit I ever tasted.
 4. THE ADVERB

An adverb is a word, phrase, or clause describing a verb, adjective, or adverb.

Modification of a Verb: ask of the verb how, when, where, why, how much, to what extent,
under what condition or circumstances?

Geeta swam rapidly. (swam how?)

Geeta swam yesterday. (swam when?)
Geeta swam in the river. (swam where?)
Geeta swam for exercise. (swam why?)
Geeta swam briefly. (swam how much, to what extent?)
Geeta swam despite the chilly weather. (swam under what condition?)

Modification of an Adjective: the adverb intensifies or specifies the adjective.

Kiran was positively certain that he fed the cattle. (the adverb “positively” intensifies the
adjective “certain.”)
Aishwarya’s eyes are intensely blue.
(the adverb “intensely” intensifies the adjective “blue.”)

Modification o f an Adverb: the adverb intensifies or specifies the other adverb.

Peter’s cake baked moderately slowly.
(the adverb “moderately” specifies the adverb “slowly.”
How slowly? Moderately slowly.

Usually, adverbs end in –ly, but not always (He spoke fast.)
Usually, one can form an adverb by adding the suffix –ly to the adjective:
beautiful (adj.) = beautifully (adv.)
quick (adj.) = quickly (adv.)
willing (adj.) = willingly (adv.)
sad (adj.) = sadly
deserved (adj.) = deservedly (adv.)

Comparison of Adverbs:
Like adjectives, adverbs have degrees of comparison. Most adverbs are
multi-syllabic and use “more” or “less” in the comparative degree and
“most” or “least” in the superlative degree.
Positive: quickly, joyfully
Comparative: more quickly, less joyfully
Superlative: most quickly, least joyfully
 5. THE INTERJECTION

The interjection (Latin inter = among, between and iacio = throw) is a word or phrase
thrown into a sentence, like a rock in a pond, to express surprise, anger, glee, or other
emotion, often strong. It is autonomous, bearing no grammatical relationship to other
words in a sentence.
The interjection, if strong, is usually followed by an exclamation point and is not normally
included in formal style..
A quiet or mild interjection in formal prose is followed by a comma.

Ouch! That slap hurt!

Wow! I thought that you died!

Holy pussycats! You look so good!

Indeed, the proposal was in good order.

Well, the situation never improved.

 6. THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is a word “pre-posed” or places before a noun or pronoun to relate that
noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence.
Many, but not all, prepositions show a relationship of space or time.

Give the grains to the birds. (“To” shows the relationship between “give” and “birds.”)
The girl in the saree is a student. (“In” shows the relationship between “girl” and “saree.”)

Common Prepositions:

In of between beside over

around through like near by
within among according to above off
with without after against past
before beyond behind into under
about across during toward at
Up down instead of upon for
below except because of since on
 7. THE CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions (Latin con + junc = join with) link words, or phrases, or clauses, or
sentences.
There are two kinds of conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions: connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of EQUAL

grammatical rank, of EQUAL importance.
There are only six: and, yet, but or, nor, for.(“so” is sometimes listed.)

-Shalini bought a new hat, but she dropped it in the mud when she left the shop.
“Shalini bought a new hat” and “she dropped it in the mud when she left the shop” are
independent clauses; they are equally important; the “but” therefore links equal ideas.)

Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect clauses that are of UNEQUAL grammatical rank, of

UNEQUAL importance. They make a clause subordinate, dependent, less grammatically
significant.

Here are some: although, since, if, when, where, how, why, while, whereas, whether, until,
because, after, before, as, unless, than etc.

After we left, the party died. (“After” makes the clause “we left” less important than the
clause, “the part died.”)

Mani smiled when her front tooth fell out.

(The important idea here is “Mani smiled.”
“When” makes the clause “her front tooth fell out” less important.)
 8. THE VERB

The verb (Latin verbum = word) is the only essential word in the sentence. If your
sentence lacks a verb, the sentence is not a sentence.
The verb expresses action or state of being.

Types of Verbs:
A) Action Verbs: express a physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual action.

Peter bent the rod.

We hope for better weather.
We wish you a Merry Christmas!
The students reflected on the lecture.

B) Copulative Verbs (Linking or State of Being Verbs) connect a subject to a noun or

adjective or pronoun and show the state of the subject’s existence:

Meera was a flowerpot in the kindergarten play.

The warden seemed angry.
Coca-Cola tastes better with pizzas.
John felt uneasy after eating sixty-two hot dogs at Christmas’ Contest.

Common Linking Verbs: be, seem, prove, appear, look, taste, sound,
feel, become (when these verbs show no action)

He tasted the soup. (Here, “tasted” is an action verb.)

The soup tasted awful. (Here “tasted” is a copulative verb, expressing the state of the
soup,)

a. Modal auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs): are used with action or copulative
verbs to form some tenses, voices, or moods.

Common Modal Auxiliaries: be, do, have, can, may, will, shall, must,
ought, might, could, should, would.

You may submit your essay tomorrow.

I should have met you at the station.
 Articles—a, an, the
The articles a, an, and the help us understand whether the noun is used in
indefinite (general) or definite (specific) way.

Is the noun general? If the noun is general, use “a” or “an.”

 A and an are indefinite articles and are used to indicate a single item.
o Take a pencil. (Take one pencil.)
o I won a hundred dollars. (I won one hundred dollars.)
 Do not use a or an with a plural noun.
o Incorrect: “They talked about a good restaurants.”
o Correct, Unspecific reference: “They talked about a good restaurant to visit.”
o Correct, Specific reference: “The talked about the good Italian restaurant on
Main Street.”
 Use a as an unspecific reference before a consonant.
o He likes to read a book. (She likes to read any book, not a specific one.)
o That was a funny story. (That was one of many funny stories.)
 Use a when the word following it starts with a consonant sound.
o a book, a hospital, a leg, a one-inch pipe, a youth
 Use an as an unspecific reference before a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).
o an apple, an opera, an eagle, an idea, an SOS (the s here is an es sound)
 Words that begin with u or h can have either a vowel or a consonant sound. Make
the choice based on the sound of the first word after the article, even if that word is
not the noun.
o a union, a uniform (use a when the u sounds like the y in you)
o an unbelievable event, an umbrella, a unique umbrella
o an honor, an hour, an honest person
o a hotel, a history book, a historian
o an historian, an historic event (NOTE: words like historic can take either a or
an)

Is the noun specific? If the noun is specific, use “the.”

 Use the as a specific reference to a common noun or something that is one of a kind.
o Give me the book on the table. (identifies a specific book)
o The sun rose at seven o'clock. (identifies something that is one of a kind)
 Use a or an to introduce a noun the first time it is mentioned, and then the is used
afterwards whenever the noun is mentioned.
o I bought a sandwich for lunch. I shared the sandwich with my friend.
Most proper nouns do not use an article. However, some do.

 A proper noun names unique person, place, or thing (New York City, Walt Disney,
The United States of America)
o Correct: “I went to New York City.”
o Incorrect: “I went to the New York City.”
 An exception is the proper nouns with “of” as part of the name:
o the Fourth of July
o the University of Virginia
o the United States of America
o the President of Mexico
o the Statue of Liberty
 Plural proper nouns use the:
o the Chicago Bulls
o the Johnsons
o the Blue Ridge Mountains
 A proper noun that names a group (a collective noun) also uses the:
o the Commonwealth of Virginia
o the United Arab Emirates
o the Society of Friends
 Some geographical features use the:
o the Gobi Desert
o the Atlantic Ocean
o the Pyramids
o the Amazon
 But other geographical features do not use the:
o Lake Superior
o Albemarle County
o Route 29
o Mount Vesuvius
 TENSES

1. SIMPLE PAST
2. PAST CONTINUOUS
3. PAST PERFECT
4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

5. SIMPLE PRESENT
6. PRESENT CONTINUOUS
7. PRESENT PERFECT
8. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

9. SIMPLE FUTURE
10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS
11. FUTURE PERFECT
12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

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 1. SIMPLE PAST

 Simple Past tense is used to describe a completed activity that happened in

past. In other words, it started in the past and ended in the past.
 Helping Verb: did.
 Verb Form: Simple Past (ate) and Infinitive (eat) when ‘did’ is used.
 Key: yesterday, last week, last month, last year, two months ago etc.

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PROUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY, KEPT,RAN,DREW LASK WEEK.
TEACHERS,HE,SHE,IT,
MY BROTHER

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY, RAJU DID NOT TOUCH,SEE,SPEAK 2 YEARS AGO.
AND VIJAY,HE,SHE,IT, (DIDN’T)
UMPIRE

POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

DID I,YOU,THEY,WE,BIRDS, CHECK,TALK, LAST NIGHT?

HE,SHE,IT,PARROT WIN

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NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

DIDN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,CHILDREN, GO,FIT,HEAR LAST

HE,SHE,IT, MY RELATIVE MONTH?

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/PROPOUN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD

WHY/HOW DID YOU,THEY,WE,YOUR TYPE,SHOUT,CHAT?

LONG/WHERE PARENTS,HE,SHE,IT,
MARY

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN KEY

VERB VERB WORD
WHAT DIDN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,MY LIKE IN LAST
COLLEAGUES,HE,SHE,IT,RAJA THE NIGHT?
PARTY

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 2. PAST CONTINUOUS

 Past Continuous tense is used to denote continuous actions in past.

 Helping Verbs: was and were.
 Verb Form: Present Participle ‘V+ing’ (eating).
 Key: by this time, when, while etc.

STRUCTURE

POSITIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

YOU,WE,THEY, WERE PLAYING,SINGING, WHEN THE TEACHER
BOYS DANCING CAME.
I,HE,SHE,IT,HORSE WAS RUNINING,EATING, WHEN THE WEATHER
DRINK WAS GOOD.

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB

KEY WORD
YOU,WE,THEY, WERE NOT WORKING,TALKING, IN THE MORNING
SIVA AND RIYA (WEREN’T) MANAGING LAST SUNDAY.
I,HE,SHE,IT,TOMMY WAS NOT FIGHTING,DRAWING, BY THIS TIME LAST
(WASN’T) CLEANING WEEK

POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
WERE YOU,THEY,WE, WATCHING, WHEN THE INSPECTOR
TRAINERS SITTING,MAKING ENTERED?
WAS I,HE,SHE,IT,SACHIN BATTING,GREETING, AT THE TIME OF LUNCH?
COMMANDING,

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NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB

KEY
WORD/PHRASE
WEREN’T YOU,THEY,WE, TALKING,REPAIRING, WHEN I WAS
MY COLLEAGUES LOOKING IN KITCHEN?
AND BOSS
WASN’T I,HE,SHE,IT, CLEANING,DOING, BY THIS TIME
MY UNCLE THROWING LAST SUNDAY?

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB

VERB KEY
WORD/PHRASE
WHY/HOW WERE YOU,THEY,WE, CHATTING, WHEN HIS
YOU BOTH OPERATING, MOTHER WAS
SHOOTING THERE?
WHEN WAS I,HE,SHE,IT,VIZAG PLAYING,EATING,
CELEBRATING?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB

WORD VERB KEY
WORD/PHRASE
WHY WEREN’T YOU,THEY,WE, WRITING,LISTENING, WHILE SHE WAS
AMIT AND DIVYA, LOOKING TEACHING
GIRLS YESTERDAY?
WHY WASN’T HE,SHE,IT,AMIT GETTING,WAITING, IN THE
TELLING MORNING?

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 3. PAST PERFECT

 Past Perfect is used:

To talk about an action that had taken place before another action (in the
past).
 Helping Verb: had.
 Verb Form: Past Participle (gone, eaten, spoken, jumped, talked)
No spoke, ate, sleep
 Key: before

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PROUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY, HAD KEPT,RUN,DRAWN BEFORE
TEACHERS,HE,SHE,IT, MOTHER
MY BROTHER CAME IN.

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY, HAD NOT TOUCHED,SEEN,SPOKEN BEFORE
RAJU AND PRIYA, (HADN’T) PLAYERS
HE,SHE,IT, UMPIRE PLAYED
YESTERDAY.

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

HAD I,YOU,THEY,WE,BEES, CHECKED, (RAHUL)

HE,SHE,IT,PARENTS ‘THOUGHT ABOUT’, BEFORE HIS
PERMITTED TEAM LEFT
LAST NIGHT?

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

HADN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,CHILDREN, GONE,EATEN,SLEPT LAST

HE,SHE,IT, MY RELATIVE MONTH?

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/PROPOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
WHY/HOW/ HAD I,YOU,THEY,WE, TYPED,SHOUTED, BEFORE THE
WHERE YOUR PARENTS, CHATTED? WEATHER,
HE,SHE,IT,MARK CHANGED?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY

WORD VERB WORD
WHAT/ HADN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,MY SEEN,EATEN, LAST
WHY COLLEAGUES,HE,SHE,IT,RAJA DRUNK,FELT NIGHT?

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 4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

 We use Past Perfect Continuous:

To talk about an action that started in past and continued until another
time in past.
 Helping Verb/s: had been
 Verb Form: Present Participle ‘V+ing’ (eating).
 Key: till, until, ‘before’

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING BEEN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD
I,YOU,WE,THEY,MEN, HAD BEEN THINKING,DEALING, UNTIL MY
HE,SHE,IT,MEENA SHARING,PREPARING MOTHER
CALLED.

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY,COWS HAD NOT BEEN DOING,TALKING, TILL LAST
HE,SHE,IT,MY TEACHER (HADN’T) SLEEPING,COOKING YEAR.

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
HAD I,YOU,THEY,WE, BEEN LEARNING,COPYING, UNTIL
TRAINERS,HE, TEACHING,GETTING DECEMBER?
SHE,IT,STUDENT

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BEEN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD
HADN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, BEEN PLAYING,DIGGING,
HE,SHE,IT HELPING,MANAGING?

WH POSITVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/ BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB PRONOUN
WHAT/ HAD I,YOU,THEY,W BEEN LEARNING,DOING,P TILL 8’O
WHY/ E,HE,SHE,IT LAYING, CLOCK IN THE
WHERE COOKING EVENING
YESTERDAY?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/ BEEN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB PRONOUN WORD
WHY/HOW/ HADN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, BEEN CHECKING, UNTIL
WHEN/WHAT TEACHERS,HE,SHE, TEACHING, RAM
IT,GATEKEEPER RETURING, CAME.
RESPONDING

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 5. SIMPLE PRESENT

 Simple Present tense is used:

To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging
situations, emotions, wishes etc.
 Helping Verbs: do and does.
 Verb Form: Infinitive (eat) and V+s with singular (eats).
No V+s when ‘does’ is used.
 Key: every day, every week, every month, every year, regularly, daily, often,
frequently etc.

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY, DRINK,EAT,SLEEP DAILY.
PEOPLE,
RAM & SITA
HE,SHE,IT, SITA, PLAYS,COOKS,JUMPS REGULARLY.
MY FRIEND

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY, DO NOT WALK,SWIM,SIT EVERY WEEK.

PETS (DON’T)
HE,SHE,IT, DOES COME,WORK,CLEAN REGULARLY.
PRINCIPAL NOT(DOESN’T)

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

DO I,YOU,THEY,WE, PRAY,LOOK,STAND DAILY?

INDIANS
DOES HE,SHE,IT,RITA PUSH,PUT,WASH RARELY?

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING VERB NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

DON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, STUDY,IGNORE,TURN EVERY DAY?
STUDENTS,
SAM & PAUL
DOESN’T HE,SHE,IT, HIS WATCH,OPEN,CLOSE DAILY?
FATHER

WH POSITVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB
WHAT DO I,YOU,THEY,WE, WRITE,LISTEN, DAILY?
EMPLOYEES WALK
HOW DOES HE,SHE,IT, DANCE,HIT,MEET  REGULARLY?
LONG HER FRIEND

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD
WHY/HOW DON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, ENJOY,GUIDE,DRIVE EVERY
RAMESH AND I DAY?
WHICH DOESN’T HE,SHE,IT,YOUR LIKE?
COLOUR SISTER

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 6. PRESENT COUNTINUOUS

 We use Present Continuous tense to talk about something that is

happening at the moment of speaking.
 Helping Verbs: am, is and are.
 Verb Form: Present Participle ‘V+ing’ (eating).
 Key: now, at present etc.
STRUCTURE:
POSITIVE
NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD
VERB
I AM MAKING,DESIGNING,FLYING NOW.
YOU,WE,THEY, ARE READING,TEACHING, RIGHT
MY COUSINS LEARNING NOW.
HE,SHE,IT, IS STAYING,LIVING, AT
MY SISTER CALLING PRESENT.

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I AM NOT DEALING,STICKING,MIXING NOW.
YOU,WE,THEY, ARE NOT HELPING,SAYING, AT THIS
DOCTORS (AREN’T) COUGHING MOMENT.
HE,SHE,IT, IS NOT RESPONDING,SENDING, NOWADAYS.
GOVERNMENT (ISN’T) RATING

POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
AM I LOOSING,TRAINING,MANAGING NOWADAYS?
ARE YOU,THEY,WE, STITCHING,FISHING,RIDING NOW?
ENGINEERS
IS HE,SHE,IT, PERFORMING,PRESENTING, CURRENTLY?
INDIA MAINTAINING

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NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD
AREN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,COMPANIES PLANNING,TAKING,EXPLAINING?
ISN’T HE,SHE,IT,YOUR NIECE ARRANGING,CLIMBING,GETTING?

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB

WHY AM I WASTING,CHANGING, NOWADAYS?

ASKING
WHEN ARE YOU,THEY,WE, GOING,TEXTING,
YOUR FRIENDS MOVING?
WHO IS/ARE WORKING,STAYING,
LEADING?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/ MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB PRONOUN
WHY AREN’T I,YOU,THEY, ARRIVING,LEAVING, NOW?
HOW WE,SNAKES CATCHING
WHO ISN’T PUSHING,STRETCHING,
AREN’T KEEPING?

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 7. PRESENT PERFECT

 Present Perfect tense is used:

To talk about an activity, which has just completed and still has an effect on
present.
 Helping Verbs: has and have.
 Verb Form: Past Participle (gone, eaten, spoken, jumped, talked)
No spoke, ate, sleep
 Key: just now.

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY, HAVE DRUNK,SLEPT,COOKED JUST NOW.
COWS, MY
MOTHER AND
FATHER
HE,SHE,IT, HAS SEEN,SPOKEN,CLICKED JUST NOW.
KISHORE,
MY FRIEND

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY, HAVE NOT WALKED,GIVEN,SAT

SCHOOLS (HAVEN’T)
HE,SHE,IT, HAS NOT COME,WORKED,CLEANED
WATCHMAN (HASN’T)

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
HAVE I,YOU,THEY,WE, PRAYED,LOOKED,STOOD?
AMERICANS
HAS HE,SHE,IT, GIRIJA PUSHED,PUT,TAKEN JUST NOW?

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD
HAVEN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,PEOPLE, STUDIED,IGNORED,TURNED?
KRISHNA AND CHOTU
HASN’T HE,SHE,IT, HIS COUSIN WATCHED,OPENED,CLOSED?

WH POSITVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/ MAIN VERB KEY

WORD VERB PRONOUN WORD
WHAT/ HAVE I,YOU,THEY,WE, WRITTEN,LISTENED,
HOW PLAYERS WALKED?
WHY/ HAS HE,SHE,IT, DANCED,HIT,
WHERE HER FRIEND MET?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN MAIN VERB KEY

VERB WORD
WHY/HOW HAVEN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, ATTENDED,
RAM AND PRIYA WATCHED,MADE?
WHERE/WHAT HASN’T HE,SHE,IT, SUNG, PLAYED,
YOUR BOSS COME?

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 8. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

 We use Present Perfect Continuous:

To talk about an action which began at sometime in the past and still
continuing.
 Helping Verb/s: has/have been
 Verb Form: Present Participle ‘V+ing’ (eating).
 Key: since, for
(Since: particular time, Ex: 10’o clock, Sunday, Last Month, 1992, January)
(For: time period, Ex: 10 minutes, 2 hours, 5 days, 6 months, 4 years)
STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY, HAVE BEEN WAITING,PLAYING, SINCE 11’O
PETS, MY WORKING,WALKING CLOCK,
FRIENDS AND
TEACHERS
HE,SHE,IT, HAS BEEN PAINTING,COLLECTING, FOR 10
MR. SHARMA, MARKING,TALKING MINUTES.
MY FRIEND

NEGATIVE

NOUN/ HELPING BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

PRONOUN VERB
I,YOU,WE, HAVE NOT BEEN DECLARING,CALLING, FOR THE
THEY, (HAVEN’T) REMINDING,FEELING LAST 2
COLLEGES YEARS.
HE,SHE,IT, HAS NOT BEEN INVITING,THINKING, SINCE LAST
GUARD (HASN’T) LOOKING,LISTENING TO WEEK.

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB

HAVE I,YOU,THEY,WE, BEEN COMING,JOINING, SINCE

PARTICIPANTS COMPLAINING,CHECKING MORNING?
HAS HE,SHE,IT, GIRI BEEN KEEPING,MIXING,
SENDING,SHOWING?

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB

HAVEN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE BEEN STICKING,JUDGING,

IMITATING,PUSHING?
HASN’T HE,SHE,IT, BEEN TRYING,FISHING, FOR 10
SINGING,GIVING MINUTES?

WH POSITVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/ BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB PRONOUN
WHAT/ HAVE I,YOU,THEY, BEEN LOOKING,DRINKING, SINCE
WHEN WE,OFFICES ENJOYING,EATING JANUARY?
WHY/ HAS HE,SHE,IT, BEEN PULLING,DISTURBING,
WHERE HIS SISTER SLEEPING,GREETING?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/ BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB PRONOUN
WHY/HOW HAVEN’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, BEEN SWEEPING,DRIVING, FOR THE
ALI AND JOHN HITTING,ARRANGING LAST 3
YEARS?
WHEN/WHAT HASN’T HE,SHE,IT,REENA BEEN PICKING,TAKING,
DRAWING,WINNING?

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 9. SIMPLE FUTURE

 Simple Future indicates that an action will happen in future.

 Helping Verb: will.
 Verb Form: Infinitive (eat).
 Key: tomorrow, next week, next month, next year, after 2 months etc.

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

SUBJECT HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY,CITIZENS, WILL WATCH,CREATE,GET TOMORROW.
HE,SHE,IT,SANJAY

NEGATIVE

SUBJECT HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I,YOU,WE,THEY,HER WILL NOT CALL,SET,PRESS NEXT WEEK.
FRIENDS,HE,SHE,IT,MY (WON’T)
MAID

POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING SUBJECT MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
WILL I,YOU,THEY,WE, GO,GIVE,SPEND THIS WEEK?
POLITICIANS,HE,SHE,IT,BINDU

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NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING SUBJECT MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
WON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,CANDIDATES, SEE,LEARN,CLEAN TOMORROW?
HE,SHE,IT,CANDIDATE

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING SUBJECT MAIN KEY WORD

WORD VERB VERB
WHY/ WILL I,YOU,THEY,WE, REQUEST, TOMORROW?
WHEN ABBAS AND SUNITA, ALLOW,
HE,SHE,IT,RITA ORDER

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING SUBJECT MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB

WHAT/ WON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, PLAY,WORK,MAKE TOMORROW?

WHY CARPENTERS
WHO WON’T ----------------- COME,GO,STUDY TODAY?

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 10. FUTURE COUNTINUOUS

 We use Future Continuous:

To talk about the future continuing action at the mentioned time or time
period.
 Helping Verb/s: will be
 Verb Form: Present Participle ‘V+ing’ (eating).
 Key: in the morning, at 2’o clock, by this time (tomorrow, next week)
STRUCTURE:
POSITIVE
NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD
VERB
I, YOU,WE,THEY, WILL BE MAKING,DESIGNING, IN THE
MY BROTHERS FLYING READING, MORNING
HE,SHE,IT, TOMORROW.
MY TRAINER

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING VERB MAIN VERB KEY WORD

I ,YOU,WE,THEY, WILL NOT BE TEACHING, AT 2’O CLOCK
MY COUSINS (WON’T BE) LEARNING NEXT WEEK.
HE,SHE,IT, STAYING,LIVING,
MY SISTER

POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/ BE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB PRONOUN
WILL I,YOU,WE,THEY, BE CALLING,LOOKING, BY THIS TIME
PEOPLE, HE,SHE,IT, CLEANING,PLAYING TOMORROW?
HIS COACH

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NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BE MAIN KEY WORD

VERB VERB

WON’T I,YOU,WE,THEY, BE WRITING, NEXT YEAR?

WORKERS, MAKING,
HE,SHE,IT, ACTING,
GOING

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BE MAIN VERB KEY

WORD VERB WORD

WHY/ WILL I,YOU,WE, BE THINKING,

WHN/ THEY,HE, DANCING,
SHE,IT TALKING,
LOOKING?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN BE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB

WHY/ WON’T I YOU,WE,THEY, BE EATING, ON

WHAT RELATIVES,HE,SHE,IT, DRINKING, WEDNESDAY?
GEETA AND HEMA WATCHING,
FEELING

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 11. FUTURE PERFECT

 Future Perfect is used:

To express an action that will be finished before some point (of time)
in future
 Helping Verb: will have
 Verb Form: Past Participle (gone, eaten, spoken, jumped, talked)
No spoke, ate, sleep
 Key: by (this time), morning, 6’o clock etc. tomorrow/next week …..

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PROUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY, WILL HAVE FINISHED,EATEN,SLEPT BY THIS TIME
STUDENTS,HE,SHE,IT, TOMORROW.
MY COLLEAGUE

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY, WILL NOT COMPLETED, BY
GEETA AND MOHAN, HAVE TAKEN,DRUNK TOMORROW.
HE,SHE,IT, PLAYER (WON’T)
HAVE

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB

WILL I,YOU,THEY,WE, HAVE DRIVEN,POLISHED, BY NEXT WEEK?

WORKERS, PLAYED
HE,SHE,IT

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
WON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE,PEOPLE, HAVE DONE,SPOKEN, BY 6’O CLOCK
HE,SHE,IT, MY TEACHER EXPLAINED TOMORROW?

WH POSITIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/ HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB PRONOUN
WHY/HOW/ WILL I,YOU,THEY,WE, HAVE SUNG,KEPT,
WHEN HE,SHE,IT,MANI SELECTED?

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB
WHAT WILL I,YOU,THEY,WE, HAVE CLEANED, BY THIS TIME
HE,SHE,IT,RAJA SEEN,WRITTEN TOMMORROW?

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 12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

 We use Future Perfect Continuous:

To talk about an action that will start ‘before the time of speaking’ in Future
and will be ‘continuing at the time of speaking’.
 Helping Verb/s: will have been
 Verb Form: Present Participle ‘V+ing’ (eating).
 Key: by (this time), morning, 6’o clock etc. tomorrow/next week …..

STRUCTURE:

POSITIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY,MEN WILL BEEN EATING,SLEEPING, BY THIS TIME
HE,SHE,IT,RITA HAVE MAKING TOMORROW.

NEGATIVE

NOUN/PRONOUN HELPING BEEN MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB
I,YOU,WE,THEY, WILL BEEN SINGING,TEACHING, IN DECEMBER NEXT
BIRDS,HE,SHE,IT, NOT WALKING YEAR.
MY TEACHER (WON’T)
HAVE

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POSITIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB BEEN
WILL I,YOU,THEY,WE, HAVE WORKING, AT 10’O CLOCK
MY RELATIVES, BEEN PAINTING, TONIGHT?
HE,SHE,IT SWEEPING

NEGATIVE QUESTION

HELPING NOUN/PRONOUN HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

VERB BEEN
WON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, HAVE CHECKING,DRINKING,
HE,SHE,IT BEEN PICKING?

WH POSITVE QUESTION

WH HELPING NOUN/ HAVE MAIN VERB KEY WORD

WORD VERB PRONOUN BEEN
WHAT/ WILL I,YOU,THEY, HAVE PLAYING, TOMORROW IN
WHY/ WE,HE,SHE, BEEN SCOLDING, THE EVENING?
WHERE IT,RAJU ADVICING

WH NEGATIVE QUESTION

WH WORD HELPING NOUN/ HAVE MAIN VERB KEY

VERB PRONOUN BEEN WORD
WHY/HOW/ WON’T I,YOU,THEY,WE, HAVE EATING,DRINKING,
WHEN/WHAT STAFF,HE,SHE,IT BEEN SITTING?

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 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

EXPLANATION 1

NOTE: We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.

Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-
verb agreement.

Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Ram, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes,
shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.

Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule
for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most,
subject-verb mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common
mistake in the following sentence:

Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a
singular verb.

Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Rahul nor Siva is available.
Either Abdul or Ramya is helping today with stage decorations.

Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun
or pronoun closest to it.

Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more)
subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.

Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they
are connected by and.

Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

But note these exceptions:

Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound
nouns.

Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along
with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the
subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.

Examples:
The politician, along with the reporters, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject.

Example: Mr. Sharma (and his team members) was always welcome.

If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.

Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.

Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
NOTE: The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal
sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's"
than "there are." Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.

Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc.,
when considered as a unit.

Examples:
Three kilometers is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.

Rule 8. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—
Rule 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun
after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a
plural verb.

Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population,
the verb might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.

Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was opposed OR were opposed to the bill.

NOTE: Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be
accurate—and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the
sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:

The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the
plural they to staff in the same sentence.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding

sentence would read even better as:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are
contrary to fact:

Example: If Mahesh were here, you'd be sorry.

Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe
isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates
the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that are hypothetical,
wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular
subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
 Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.

In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed;

therefore, were, which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the
singular it. (Technically, it is the singular subject of the object clause in the
subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)

Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example,
where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be
used in formal speech and writing.
 EXPLANATION 2

Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural
verbs. My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.

1. The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are

always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

 Everyone has done his or her homework.

 Somebody has left her purse.

Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending
on what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful
choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.

 Some of the beads are missing.

 Some of the water is gone.

On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular
or plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb —
unless something else in the sentence determines its number. (Writers generally
think of none as meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in "None of the
engines are working," but when something else makes us regard none as
meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")

 None of you claims responsibility for this incident?

 None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
 None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example,
the word ‘their’ precludes the use of the singular verb.
 2. Some indefinite pronouns are particularly
troublesome Everyone and everybody (listed above, also) certainly feel like
more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use
a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often
followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the
cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and
requires a singular verb.

Everyone has finished his or her homework.

You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular
and nothing will change that.

Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.

Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always
singular — Each is responsible.

3. Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same
as and. The phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the
earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as
the word and would do).

 The minister as well as his brothers is going to prison.

 The minister and his brothers are going to jail.

4. The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even
though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.

 Neither of the two traffic lights is working.

 Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these
pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is
particularly true of interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns
read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking this seriously?" Burchfield calls
this "a clash between notional and actual agreement."*

5. The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used
the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether
the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity
determines the number.

 Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

 Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
 Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
 Is either my father or my brothers responsible?

Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the
house" sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to
the verb whenever that is possible.

6. The words there and here are never subjects.

 There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.

 There is no reason for this.
 Here are two apples.

With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the
verb but still determines the number of the verb.
7. Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and
anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not
add s-endings.

He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .

8. Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these
modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.

The minister, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four
counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several
political lives, is finally going to jail.

9. Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're
plural when they're really singular and vice-versa. Consult the section on
the Plural Forms of Nouns and the section on Collective Nouns for
additional help. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are
regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded the
phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).

 My glasses were on the bed.

 My pants were torn.
 A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

10. Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and
require singular verbs.

 The news from the front is bad.

 Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are
nonetheless plural and require a plural verb.

 My assets were wiped out in the depression.

 The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
 Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.

The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: the Miami
Heat have been looking … , The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent … .
See the section on plurals for help with this problem.

11. Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority
of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning.
(The same is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as
subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as
singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly
enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried this."

 Some of the voters are still angry.

 A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
 Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
 Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
 Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
 Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
 Two and two is four.
 Four times four divided by two is eight.

12. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is
plural, the other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

 The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach
on Valentine's Day.
 It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
 It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.
 CLAUSES
Words and phrases make up clauses. Clauses are units of grammar that contain at
least one predicate (verb) and a subject. This makes a clause different than
a phrase, because a phrase does not contain a verb and a subject.
In fact, the essential component of a clause is the verb -- and a clause only contains
one verb or verb group. A verb group can consist of a single word (such as
"played," "cooked," and "swam") or contain helping verbs (as in "will excel" and
"has been dreaming").
If we look at a simple sentence, we see it only contains one clause. Here are some
examples of simple sentences that consist of just a single clause:

 Rahul played.
 James cooked the dinner.
 Sammy will excel on the varsity team.
 Jenny has been dreaming during class.

Types of Clauses in Grammar

We'll begin with the two main types of clauses: independent and dependent
clauses. Then, we'll dive into the various parts of speech that can also band
together to form clauses.

Independent Clauses

An independent clause can stand as a sentence by itself or it can be combined with

other clauses. These clauses will always contain a subject and a predicate. They
can join with a dependent clause or other independent clauses to make a complex
sentence. Here are some examples, with the independent clause in bold:
 I love opening the windows while the warm breeze blows.
 Since we enjoyed this book, we'll be sure to pay it forward.
 She walked to the grocery store to buy a bouquet of flowers.
 Dependent Clauses

By itself, a dependent clause can't be considered a sentence. Standing alone, it

would be considered a sentence fragment, or an incomplete sentence. It needs to be
combined with an independent clause to form a complete thought.

Let's take a look at some examples with the dependent clause in bold:

 If that's a milkshake, I'm having it.

 He's dull mainly because he's unhappy.
 Let's go for a walk while the sun's still out.

More specifically, dependent clauses take three forms: adverb clauses, adjective
clauses, and noun clauses.

Adverb Clauses

Adverb clauses are groups of words that function like an adverb. They modify
verbs, other adverbs, or adjectives. These clauses are typically used to elaborate
when, where, why, how, how much, or under what condition the action of the
sentence took place.
Here are some example sentences using adverb clauses:

 Since it's just me, I'll eat tonight.

 My dog, although she is shy, loves people.
 I keep a suitcase packed, in case I find a great flight to Ireland.
 Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses are groups of words that modify nouns and pronouns. These
clauses tend to begin with pronouns such as:
 who
 whose
 that
 which

Here are some adjective clauses in sentences:

 The winners, whose names are posted on the bulletin board, will receive round
trip airfare to Mexico City.
 Money that is well spent will last forever.
 Exercise, which many people dislike, is good for you.

Noun Clauses

A noun clause is a group of words that band together and act like a noun. Nouns
clauses are used when a single word isn't enough. They're always dependent
clauses; they cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and they often begin with
words like:
 how
 that
 what
 when
 where
 which
 who
 why
 Here are some sentence examples using noun clauses:

 How he behaved was not acceptable.

 She didn't know where she was.
 Her favorite part of the book was when the dragon turned into a boy.
These clauses are quite common and work well in many types of sentences.

Connecting Independent Clauses

You might've noticed that many clauses can be joined simply by adding a comma.
Let's talk about some of the other ways you can connect the various types of
clauses. Independent clauses can be connected in several different ways.

Adding a Comma and a Conjunction

One of the best ways to work with a conjunction is to include a comma. This
indicates a pause, and then the conjunction can help continue your thought.
 And - She stepped into the room, twirled around once, and cartwheeled in delight.
 But - The boy wanted to go to the movies, but he had already spent his allowance.
 Or - You can start a fire with a lighter, make a wish, or you can use a charcoal
chimney starter.
 Yet - The woman was late for the meeting, yet she still stopped to freshen her
lipstick.
 So - The little girl wanted to please her parents, so she did everything they told her
to do.
For more on this, enjoy 8 Times Commas Were Important.
 Using a Semicolon

Semicolons are another nice way to indicate a pause while still connecting your
thoughts. Semicolons are best suited for joining two independent clauses.
 I didn't eat the last cookie; I ate the last french fry.
 She picked up the old postcard; the date matched her wedding anniversary.
 Today, life begins afresh; choose wisely.

Using a Semicolon and a Conjunctive Adverb

Conjunctive adverbs connect two independent clauses or two complete sentences.

They work nicely with semicolons because they connect two complete ideas within
one sentence. These adverbs help us compare and contrast items, list events, or
illustrate cause and effect. Here are some examples:

 I went to the park; however, the rain dampened my mood.

 You will enjoy this book; moreover, it will change your life.
 She was invincible; nevertheless, he tried to steal her joy.
 He made the wrong move; as a result, she vowed never to see him again.
 We took a wrong turn; consequently, we lost an hour in our drive time.
 Connecting Dependent Clauses

Dependent clauses can connect to independent clauses with no punctuation or with

a comma. You may want to review 8 Times Commas Were Important. It addresses
pertinent times when commas (or their absence) are important. One of the first
times they're important is wrapping around clauses. For example:
 If you're going to cry about it, I'm leaving.
 I'd like to make it clear that, while I understand your concern, you are certainly
wrong.
 She was tired, despite her best efforts, and oh so disappointed.

Here are example sentences where a comma isn't necessary:

 He's leaving because you're crying.

 Life is not worth living without a wish in your heart.
 I know it'll happen since we've been working so hard.
 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

There are four types of conditional sentences.

It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different conditional
sentences because they express varying meanings.

Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.

Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical

situations and their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a
conditional clause (often referred to as the if-clause) and the consequence.
Consider the following sentences:

If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.

 I would travel around the world if I won the lottery.

 When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

There are four different types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a
different degree of probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred
under certain circumstances.

Zero Conditional Sentences

First Conditional Sentences

Second Conditional Sentences

Third Conditional Sentences

How to Use Zero Conditional Sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one

thing always causes another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking
about a general truth rather than a specific instance of something. Consider the
following examples:

 If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

 When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

There are a couple of things to take note of in the above sentences in which the
zero conditional is used. First, when using the zero conditional, the correct tense to
use in both clauses is the simple present tense. A common mistake is to use the
simple future tense.

 When people smoke cigarettes, their health will suffer .

Secondly, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these
zero conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will always be the same,
so it doesn’t matter “if” or “when” it happens.

How to Use First Conditional Sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is
likely (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

 If you rest, you will feel better.

 If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense in
the main clause—that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how
we indicate that under a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific
result will likely happen in the future.
 Examine some of the common mistakes people make using the first conditional
structure:

 If you will rest, you will feel better.

 If you rest, you will feel better.

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

 If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it.

 If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Explanation: Use the zero conditional (i.e., simple present + simple present) only
when a certain result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first conditional
(i.e., simple present + simple future).

How to Use Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are
completely unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the
examples below:

 If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

 If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Notice the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the
simple past tense in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should,
would, might) in the main clause (the one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely
outcome). The following sentences illustrate a couple of the common mistakes
people make when using the second conditional:

 If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

 If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.
Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in
the if-clause.

 If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more.
 If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the second
conditional mood to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually happen.

How to Use Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would
be different if something different had happened in the past. Look at the following
examples:

 If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
 If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually
happen in the past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early,
but did not. Along these same lines, the speaker in the second sentence was
capable of cleaning the house, but did not. These are all conditions that were likely,
but regrettably did not happen.

Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past
participle) in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, shoud, etc.) + have
+ past participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation
that could have happened.
Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

 If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
 If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb in
the if-clause.

 If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.

 If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

Explanation: The third conditional mood expresses a situation that could have only
happened in the past if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use the
modal auxiliary verb + have + the past participle.

Exceptions and Special Cases When Using Conditional Sentences

As with most topics in the English language, conditional sentences often present
special cases in which unique rules must be applied.

Use of the Simple Future in the If-Clause

Generally speaking, the simple future should be used only in the main clause. One
exception is when the action in the if-clause will take place after the action in the
main clause. For example, consider the following sentence:

If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple tonight.

The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the headache, which will take place
only after the speaker takes them later that night.

“Were to” in the If-Clause

The verb phrase were to is sometimes used in conditional sentences when the
likely or unlikely result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this case, were to is
used to place emphasis on this potential outcome. Consider these sentences:

 If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.

 If she were to be late again, she would have to have a conference with the
manager.
 If the rent were to have been a penny more, they would not have been able to
pay it.

Note that the emphatic “were to” can be used to describe hypothetical scenarios in
the present, future, and past.

Punctuating Conditional Sentences

Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences, punctuating them properly is

really simple!

Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

 If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.

If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no punctuation is necessary.

 I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.
 IF….

I) If I find………
Example
Rani: I think I lost my pen in your room. Did you find?
Rita: No, I will search for that. If I find that, I will give you.
(Reverse also possible)
There is a real possibility.
Rule: Simple Present + will……… (Verb: Base Form ‘go’)...........

II) If I found………
Example
Raj: If I found a mobile, I would submit that in the office.
(Reverse also possible)
It is fully imaginative.
Rule: Simple Past + would……..… (Verb: Base Form ‘go’)…………

III) If I were……..
* If I was………. (Possible)
Example
If I were a bird, I would fly in the sky.
(Reverse also possible)
It is fully imaginative like II), only difference is the absence of Verb.
Rule: ‘were’ is used (but ‘was’ can be possible with Singulars) + would………….
(Verb: Base Form ‘go’)………………

IV) If I had gone………. I would have met………

* Had I gone………….. I would have met…. (Possible)
Example
If I had gone to market, I would have met your brother.
(Reverse also possible)
It is also completely imaginative.
Rule: Past Perfect + would have…….. (Verb: Past Participle form ‘gone’)…….

 If I had been tall, I would have been in the basket ball team.
 Had I been tall, I would have been in the basket ball team. (Possible)
Rule: had been and would have been + condition