St

udyMat
eri
al
Cour
seCode:ENG:1
01

Cour
seTi
tl
e:I
ntr
oduct
iont
oGr
ammar

I
nst
ruct
or: Ms.RubabZahr
a

Cont
ent
s PageNumber

Par
tsofSpeech 02

Phr
ases
,Sent
encesandCl
aus
es 22

Punct
uat
ionMar
ks 34

Di
rect&I
ndi
rectSpeech 42

Act
ivevoi
ce/Pas
sivevoi
ce 50
 Par
tsofs
peech
ThereareeightpartsofspeechinEngli
shl
anguage:noun,pronoun,verb,adject
ive,
adverb,pr
epos i
ti
on,conj
uncti
on,andint
erj
ect
ion.
Apar tofspeechi
ndicateshowt he
wordf uncti
ons in meaning as wellas gr
ammat i
call
y withi
nt he sentence.An
i
ndivi
dualwor dcanfuncti
onasmor ethanonepartofspeechwhenus edindiffer
ent
ci
rcumstances.Underst
anding part
s ofspeech i
s essenti
alfordet er
mining the
corr
ectdefi
nit
ionofawor d.

1
.Noun:
Anounisakindofwor
dt hati
sus
ual
l
ythenameofs
omet
hings
uchasaper
son,
pl
ace,
thi
ng,
quali
ty,
ori
dea.

Typesofnoun
Ther
ear
esever
aldi
ff
erentt
ypesofnoun,
asf
oll
ows
:

Commonnoun

Acommonnouni sanounthatrefer
stopeopl
eort
hingsi
ngener
al,
e. boy,
g. count
ry,
br
idge,
cit
y,bi
rt
h,day,
happines
s .

Pr
opernoun

Apropernounisanamethati
dent
if
iesaparti
cul
arperson,pl
ace,ort
hing,e.g.Ali
,
Af
ri
ca,London,
Monday.
Inwri
tt
enEngli
sh,
propernounsbeginwit
hcapi
tallet
ters.

Concr
etenoun

Aconcretenounisanounwhi chrefer
stopeopleandtothi
ngst
hatexi
stphys
ical
ly
andcanbes een,touched,s
mell
ed,heard,ort
ast
ed.Exampl
esi udedog,bui
ncl ldi
ng,
cof
fee,
tree,r
ain,
beach, t
une.

Abs
tractnoun

Anabs tr
actnounisanounwhi chreferstoi
deas,qual
i
ties
,andcondi
ti
ons-thi
ngs
thatcannotbeseenortouchedandt hingswhichhavenophysi
calr
eal
it g.t
y,e. r
uth,
danger,happi
ness,
time,
fri
endship,
humour .

Abst
ractNounsarefor
med:
(
1)Fr
om Adject
ives
;as,
Kindnes sf
rom kind;honestyfr
om honest.
[Mostabs tr
actnounsar eformedthus.]
(2)Fr
om Ver bs:as,
Obedi encefrom obey;growthfrom gr
ow.
(3)From CommonNouns ;as,

Chi
l
dhoodf
rom chi
l
d;s
laver
yfr
om s
lave.

Mat
eri
alnoun

Mater
ialnounrefer
stoamateri
alors
ubstancef
rom whi
cht
hingsar
emades
uchas
si
l
ver,
gold,ir
on,cott
on,
diamondandplas
tic.

Col
l
ect
ivenouns

Coll
ecti
ve nouns r
efer to groups ofpeopl
e or t
hings g.audi
,e. ence,fami
l
y,
government,t
eam,jury.I
nAmer i
canEngl
is
h,mostcoll
ect
ivenounsaretreat
edas
si
ngular,wi
thasi
ngularverb:

Thewhol
efami
l
ywasatt
het
abl
e.

Count
abl
eandUncount
abl
enouns

Nounscanbeei thercountabl
eoruncount able.Countablenouns( orcountnouns
)
arethos et hatrefertos omething thatcan becount ed.A count abl
enoun isa
separateobj ect
.Iti
sas eparateunit
.Wecancl earl
ycountt henumberofunitsofa
countablenoun.Anexampl eis“apple”.
Acount ablenounhasas ingularf
orm(when
ther
ei soneuni t)
.Example:Ihaveoneappl e.Italsohasapl uralf
orm( wheret
herei
s
moret han1uni t)Forregularnouns ,weus uall
yf or
mt hepl uralbyadding“s”–
Exampl e:I
havet woappl es.

Uncount ablenouns(ormassnouns)Anuncountabl
enouni snotas eparat
eobject
orunit
.Wecannotcountuncount abl
enouns.I
tisalargesol
i
dmas sorliqui
dwit
hout
cl
earboundar ies
.Anex ampl
eis“water”Wecannotcountwat er
.WedoNOTs ay“ I
have3wat ers
”–Itdoesnotmakesense.Wat
erisaliqui
dandisjustonebigamount
al
ltogether.

Uncount
abl
enounsonl
yhaveas
ingul
arf
orm.
Exampl
e:I
haves
omewat
er.
Ther
eisnopl
ural
for
mforuncount
abl
enouns
.Ihaves
omewat
ers
.
Wecannotus
ethei
ndef
ini
tear
ti
cl
e(“
a”/“
an”
)Exampl
e:I
haveawat
er.

Uncount
able nounsar
etheref
ore namesofmat
eri
als
,gas
es,l
i
qui
ds,concept
s,
col
l
ecti
ons,
mas sobj
ect
swi
thoutboundar
ies
.
Exampl
es:s
ugar
,but
ter
,oxygen,
rice,
pas
ta,
sal
t,br
ead,
mil
k,wat
er

CompoundNoun

Compoundnounsarewordsf orpeopl
e,ani
mal
s,pl
aces
,thi
ngs
,ori
deas,madeupof
twoormorewor ds.Mostcompoundnounsar emadewi t
hnounsthathavebeen
modi
fi
edbyadjecti
vesorothernouns.

Compoundnounsaresometi
mesonewor d,l
i
ketoothpas
te,hai
rcut
,orbedr
oom.
Thes
eareof
tenref
err
edtoascl
osedors
oli
dcompoundnouns.

Somet
imescompoundnounsar
econnectedwithahyphen:dr
y-cl
eani
ng,daught
er-
i
n-l
aw,andwell
-bei
ngar
esomeexamplesofhyphenat
edcompoundnouns.

Someti
mescompoundnounsappearast wos epar
atewords:f
ullmoon,Chri
stmas
tr
ee,andswi
mmi ngpoolar
es omeexamplesofcompoundnounst hatar
eformed
witht
woseparat
ewords.Thes
eareoftenref
erredtoasopenors pacedcompound
nouns.

CompoundNounsExer
cis
es

Choos
ethewor
dthatmakeseachoft
hes
enounsi
ntoacompoundnoun.

1.Fund___
__
___
__(A–dri
ver,
B–s eat,C–rai
ser)
2.News____
__
___
_(A–paper,B–story,C–tr
avel
s)
3.Sun___
__
___
__
__(A–day,B–glasses,
C–heat)
4.Chil
d___
__
___
___(
A–hood,B–r en,C–play)
5.Door__
___
__
___
_(A–fr
ame, B–handle,C–way

Pos
ses
siveNouns
Posses
sivenounsdemonstr
ateowner
shi
povers
omet
hingels
e.Thebes
twayt
ospot
them i
stolookforanapos
trophe.
Her
eares
omeexamples
:
 Al
i
’si
magi
nat
ionr
anwi
l
dass
hedaydr
eamedabouthert
ri
ptoMur
ee.
 I
rel
and'
slands
capei
str
ulybr
eat
htaki
ng.
 Theki
ds'
toysar
eint
hebas
ket

Gender
-speci
fi
cNoun
A gender-
speci
fi
cnounrefer
ss peci
fi
cal
lyto a mal
e ora female.In Engli
sh,
thegenderofmos tnounsisneuter.However
,ifa noun r
efer
st osomet hi
ng
obvi
ously mal
e orfemale,then i
tsgenderwillbemascul
ineorfemi
nine.For
example:
 queen,
vixen(
femal
efox
),bi
tch(
femal
edog)
,sow(
femal
epi
g)
 (
Thegr
ammat
ical
genderoft
hes
enounsi
sfemi
nine.
)
 ki
ng,uncle,dr
ake(
mal
educk)
,(Thegr
ammat
icalgenderoft
hes
enounsi
s
mascul
ine.)

Anount hatdenoteseit
heramal eoraf emal
eissai
dtobeoftheCommonGender
;
as
Parent
,chi
ld,f
ri
end,pupil
,ser
vant,t
hief,
rel
ati
on,
enemy,cous
in,
per
son,
orphan,
st
udent,baby,monarch,nei
ghbour,i
nfant.

Anount hatdenot
esat hi
ngthati
sneithermal
enorfemale(
i.
e.,
thi
ngwi
thoutl
i
fe)i
s
sai
dtobeoft heNeut
erGender;as,
Book,pen,r
oom,tr
ee.
 [Neutermeansnei
ther,t
hati
s,nei
thermalenorf
emale]

Ver
bal
nouns
Nounsderi
vedf r
om verbs(e.g.
,abuil
ding,anattack)
I
twasal ovel
ybuilding.
Thei
rarr
ivalhasbeendel ayed
Thatwasanawf ul deci
si
onbyt hereferee.

2-
Pronouns
Pr
onounsar
eus
edi
npl
aceofanounof
tent
oavoi
drepeat
ingt
henoun.
Forexampl
e:

Hi
nawast
ir
eds
oshewentt
obed.

Al
itookt
hechi
l
drenwi
thhi
m.

Al
ibr
oughtagl
assofwat
erf
orme

Thati
sagoodi
dea.

Anyt
hingmi
ghthappen.

Per
sonal
pronouns

Personalpronounsareus edinplaceofnounsrefer
ri
ngt ospecif
icpeopleorthings
,
forexampl eI,we,they,you,he,she,me,mine,you,yours
,his,her
,hers,,orthem.
Theycanbedi videdintovariousdif
fer
entcategori
esaccordingtot hei
rroleina
sentence,asfol
lows:

 subjectivepronouns
 objectivepronouns
 posses si
vepronouns
 ref
lexivepronouns
Subj
ect
ivepr
onouns

Theper s
onalpronounsI
,you,we,he,she,
it,and t
heyar
eknown ass
ubj
ect
ive
pronounsbecaus
etheyactast
hesubj
ect
sofverbs:

Shes
awher
. Wedr
oveAl
ihome. I
wavedather
.

Obj
ect
ivepr
onouns

The personalpr ,me,

onouns you,us
,him,her
,it
,and t
hem ar
e cal
l
ed obj
ect
ive
pronounsbecaus
etheyactastheobj
ect
sofver
bs:

Humas
awher
.Al
idr
oveushome.Shewavedatme.

Her
e’sat
abl
eset
ti
ngoutt
hedi
ff
erentf
orms
:

SI
NGULAR PLURAL
Subj
ect
ive Obj
ect
ive s
ubj
ect
iveobj
ect
ive

f
ir
stper
son I Me we Us

s
econdper
son You You you You

t
hir
dper
son he/
she/
it hi
m/her
/i
t They Them

Noti
cethatt
hepers onounsyouandi
onalpr tst
ayt
hes
ame,whet
hert
heyar
ebei
ng
usedint
hesubj
ect
iveorobject
iver
oles
.

Pos
ses
sivepr
onouns

The per
sonalpronouns mine,yours,hers,hi
s,our
s,and thei
rsar
e known as
pos
sessi
vepronouns:t
heyrefertosomethi
ngownedbythespeakerorbysomeone
ors
omethingprevi
ousl
yment i
oned.
Forexample:

Thatbooki
smi
ne.

J
ohn’
seyesmether
s.

Hei
sOurf
ami
l
yfr
iend.

Ref
lexi
vepr
onouns

Refl
exive per s
onalpr onouns i ude mys
ncl elf
,hims el
f,hersel
f,i
tsel
f,our
selves
,
yourselves,andthemselves
.Thesear
eusedt
oreferbacktothesubj
ectoft
heclause
i
nwhi cht heyareused:
I
fel
landhur
tmys
elf
.

Dai
sypr
epar
edher
sel
ffort
hej
our
ney.

Thechi
l
drenhadt
olookaf
tert
hems
elves
.

Rel
ati
vePr
onouns

Rel
ativepronounsmakeupanot hercl
assofpr onouns.Theyareus edtoconnect
rel
ati
veclausestoi
ndependentclaus
es.Often,theyintr
oduceaddit
ionali
nfor
mation
aboutsomethingmentionedinthesentence.Relati
vepr onounsi
ncludethat
,what,
which,who,andwhom.Tr adi
ti
onaly,whor
l efer
st opeople,andwhi
chandt hatr
efer
toanimal
sort hi
ngs
.

Thewomanwhocal
l
edear
li
erdi
dn’
tleaveames
sage.
Al
lthedogst
hatgotadopt
edt
odaywi
l
lbel
oved.
Mycar
,whi
chi
snear
lyt
went
yyear
sol
d,s
til
lrunswel
l
.
Demons
trat
ivePr
onouns

That
,thi
s,thes
eandt hos
earedemons tr
ati
vepronouns
.Theyt
aket
hepl
aceofa
nounornounphras
ethathasal
readybeenmenti
oned.

Thisi
susedforsi
ngulari
temst
hatar by.Thes
enear eisusedf
ormul
ti
plei
temst
hat
arenear
by.Thedi
stancecanbephys
ical
ormetaphori
cal
.

I
ndef
ini
tePr
onouns

I
ndefinit
epr onounsareus edwhenyouneed t oref
ertoa personort hi
ng that
doesn’tneedt obespeci
fi
call
yident
if
ied.Somecommonindef
ini
tepronounsareone,
other
, none,
s ome,anybody,ever
ybody,andnoone.

I
nter
rogat
ivePr
onouns

I
nter
rogat
ivepr
onounsar
eus
edi
nques
tions
.Thei
nter
rogat
ivepr ewho,
onounsar
what,whi
ch,
whom et
c.

Reci
procal
Pronouns
Areci
procalpronounisapronounwhichi
sus edtoindi
catethattwoormorepeopl
e
arecarryi
ngoutorhavecar r
iedoutanacti
onofs ometype,withbot
hrecei
vingt
he
benefi
tsorconsequencesoft
hatacti
onsi
multaneousl
y.

Ther
ear
eonl
ytwor
eci
procalpr
onouns
.eachot
herandoneanot
her
.Bot
hoft
hem
al
low youtomakesent
encess
impl
er.Theyarees
peci
all
yus
efulwhenyouneedt
o
ex
pressthesamegener
ali
deamorethanonce.

I
ntens
ivePr
onouns
Ani ntensi
vepronounisalmostidenti
caltoaref
lexi
vepr onoun.I
tisdefi
nedasa
pronoun thatendsi nselforselvesand pl
acesemphas ison it
santecedentby
refer
ri
ngbackt oanot hernounorpr onounusedearli
erint hesent
ence.Forthi
s
reason,int
ens
ivepronounsares
omet i
mescall
edemphat i
cpronouns.

Benbui
l
taboatf
orhi
msel
f. Ref
lexi
vepr
onoun

Mymot
herbakesourf
ami
l
y’sbr
eadher
sel
f.I
ntens
ivepr
onoun

Gener
icPr
onoun

Al
soknownascommon-
genderpr
onoun.

I
nEngl i
shgr ammar ,agener i
cpr onounisapersonalpronoun(suchasoneort hey)
thatcanrefertobot hmas cul
ineandf emini
neenti
ties
.Alsocal
ledacommongender
pronoun,anepicenepr onoun,andagender -
neutr
alpronoun.One,you,weandt hey
aregenericpersonalpronouns .
Wecanus eone,you,weandt heytorefert
o‘people
i
ngener al
’.

Ones
houl
dnevergot
osl
eepwi
thanel
ect
ri
cheat
ingpadt
urnedon.

Onecanus
etheI
nter
netwi
thoutunder
standi
ngcooki
es.(
orYoucanus
e… orWe
canus
e…)

Youus
ual
l
yneedar
aincoati
nIr
eland.
Itr
ainsal
ot.

Wet
endt
oavoi
dtal
ki
ngaboutmoney.

Di
str
ibut
ivepr
onoun
Dist
ri
but i
vepronouni
sapronounwhichdenot
esper
sonsorthi
ngsofgroup
separatel
ythat'
swhytheyalwaysbecomesi
ngul
arandfol
l
owedbyt hesingul
ar
verbs.

Thispr
onounisus
edtoindi
cat
eall
themembersofrepresentati
vegroup.Someof
thedis
tri
but
ivepr
onounsar
eli
keeach,
eit
her
,nei
ther,everyone,any,none,noone,
etc

 Eachboywasgivenapr i
ze.
 Ei
therr
oadleadstotherai
lways
tat
ion.
 Neit
heraccus
ati
onistrue.
3-
Ver
b
A verbdescri
beswhataper
sonort
hingdoesorwhathappens
.Forexampl
e,
verbsdes
cribe:

anact
ion–r
un,
hit
,tr
avel

anevent–r
ain,
occur

as
ituat
ion–be,
seem,
have

achange–become,
grow,
devel
op

St
ati
veandDynami
cVer
bs

Ver
bsinEngli
shcanbecl as
sif
iedintotwocategor
ies
:Stat
iveverbsanddynamic
ver
bs.Dynamicverbs(s
omet i
mesr efer
redtoas"acti
onverbs"
)usuall
ydescr
ibe
act
ionswecantake,ort
hingsthathappen;

Stati
veverbsusuall
yr efert
oas t
ateorcondi t
ionwhichisnotchangingorli
kel
y
tochange.Thedif
ferenceisimpor
tant,becausestati
veverbscannotnormal
lybe
usedinthecont
inuous( BE+ING)for
ms .Thi
swi l
lexpl
ainthedif
fer
encesbetween
thetwotypesofverb,andgivelot
sofexampl esofeachkind.

Therearemanytypesofdynamicver
bs,butmos
tofthem des
cri
beact
ivi
ti
esor
eventswhi
chcanbegi
nandf i
nis
h.Her
earesomeexampl
es:

Dynami
cVer
b Type Exampl
es

Pl
ay:act
ivi
ty Shepl
ayst
enni
sever
yFr
iday.

She'
spl
ayi
ngt
enni
sri
ghtnow.

Mel
t:pr
oces
s Thes
nowmel
tsever
yspr
ing.

Thes
nowi
smel
ti
ngr
ightnow

Hi
t:moment
aryact
ionWhenoneboxerhi
tsanot
her
,br
aindamagecanr
esul
t

Whenoneboxeri
shi
tt
inganot
her
,br
aindamagecanr
esul
t.

Dynamicverbs,asyoucans eefr
om t heexamplesabove,canbeus edinthe
si
mpleandper fectfor
ms(plays
,played,hasplayed,hadpl ayed)aswel
lasthe
cont
inuousorpr ogr
essi
veforms(i
splaying,wasplaying,hasbeenplayi
ng,had
beenplayi
ng).
 St
ati
vever
bs

Stati
ve verbsusuall
yrefert oas tate orcondi
ti
on whi ch isqui
testati
c or
unchanging.Theycanbedi vi
dedintoverbsofper cept
ionorcognit
ion(which
refert
ot hi
ngsinthemind),orver
bsofr el
ati
on(whichdes cr
ibether
elat
ions
hips
betweent hi
ngs)
.Herearesomeexampl es:

St
ati
veVer
b Type Exampl
es

hat
e per
cept
ion I
hat
echocol
ate.

bel
i
eve per
cept
ion Shebel
i
evesi
nAl
l
ah.

cont
ain r
elat
ion Theboxcont
ains24cansofs
oda.

own r
elat
ion Heownst
hreemot
orbi
kes
.

Notethatwecannotuset
hesever
bsinthecont
inuous(progr
ess
ive)for
ms;you
can’
ts ay"
*Heisowningt
hreecar
s."Owni
ngisas tate,notanaction,soi
tis
alwaysint
hesi
mplef
orm.

Exampl
ever
bs

Heresome common s tat

ive and dynamic ver
bs.The l
i
stsmay hel
p you t
o
under
stand whattypesofver bsarelikel
yt obestat
iveand whatt
ypesare
commonlydynamic.

Stati
veVer bs:love;hat e;li
ke;see;hear
;s ound;thi
nk (
meani
ng "
have an
opinion")
;mind(meaning" car
eabout"
);r
ecognize;s
eem;have(
meani
ng"own")
;
prefer;doubt
;consi
stof;mean

DynamicVer bs
:eat ;dr
ink;go;t
ype;r
ead;wr
it
e;l
i
sten;s
peak;wat
ch;s
ay;gr
ow;
work;
sleep;cook;t
alk

Dynamicverbs,asyoucans eefr
om t heexamplesabove,canbeus edinthe
si
mpleandper fectfor
ms(plays
,played,hasplayed,hadpl ayed)aswel
lasthe
cont
inuousorpr ogr
essi
veforms(i
splaying,wasplaying,hasbeenplayi
ng,had
beenplayi
ng).

Tr
ans
iti
veandi
ntr
ans
iti
vever
bs

Atransi
ti
veverbisonet hatisusedwithanobject:anounphrase,orpr
onounthat
r
eferstot heperson orthing t
hatisaffect
ed byt heacti
on oftheverb.I
nt he
f
oll
owingsentencesadmi
, r
e, mai
ntai
n,f
ace,andlovearetr
ansit
ivever
bs:

I
admi
reyourcour
age.
Weneedt
omai
ntai
npr
oductqual
i
ty.

I
coul
dn’
tfacehi
mtoday.

Shel
ovesani
mal
s.

Somet
rans
iti
vever
bscanbeus
edwi
thadi
rectobj
ectandani
ndi
rectobj
ect
:

agl
assof
Li
zbr
oughtHer
wat
er.
[i
ndirect
[
dir
ectobj
ect
]
object]
Hes
ent Her al
ett
er.
[i
ndirect
[
dir
ectobj
ect
]
object]
I
ntr
ans
iti
vever
bs

Anint
ransi
ti
veverbdoesnothaveanobj
ect
.Int
hef
oll
owi
ngs
ent
ences
,cr
y,wor
k,
l
augh,andtalkar
eint
ransi
ti
veverbs
:

Thebabywascr
ying.

Theboyi
spl
ayi
ng.

Fi
nit
eandNon-
fi
nit
ever
bs:

Fi
niteverbswhi
chhasas ubj
ectandshowstense.Everys
entenceneedsfi
nit
everb.
Non-fi
nit
everbsar
everbsthatdonotdescr
ibeaver b,
notshowingtenseorver
bs
whicharenotacti
ngl
ikeaverb.Ther
earethreetypesofnon-fi
nit
everbs

1-Gerunds:f
orm oft
hever
bwhi
chendsi
n‘i
ng’
andhasaf
unct
ionofnoune.
g.
paint
ing,wri
ti
ng

2-
Par
ti
ci
ples
:isver
bfor
m us
edasanadj
ect
ivet
omodi
fynounandpr
onoun.

Al
lpr
esentpar
ti
ci
plesendi
n‘i
ng’
thel
aughi
ngl
ady,
thef
all
i
ngt
emper
atur
e.

Al
lregul
arver
bsendi
n‘ed’
tir
eddancer
,thei
njur
edpl
ayer

3-i
nfi
nit
ives:Thebas
icf
orm ofaver
bisknownast
hei
nfi
nit
ive.
It’
sof
tenpr
eceded
bythewor d‘to’
:

Hedeci
dedt
ofol
l
owhi
m.

Hebegant
orunback.
Act
iveandpas
sivever
bs

Dependi
ngont
hewayi
nwhi
chyouwor
das
ent
ence,
aver
bcanbeei
theract
iveor
pass
ive.

Whent
hever
bisact
ive,
thes
ubj
ectoft
hever
bisdoi
ngt
heact
ion,
asi
nthes
e
ex
ampl
es:

Al
i eat
smangoes
.

[
subj
ect
] [
act
ivever
b]

Whent
hever
bispas
sive,
thes
ubj
ectunder
goest
heact
ionr
athert
handoi
ngi
t:

Mangoesar
eeat
enbyAl
i
.

[
subj
ect
] [
pas
sivever
b]

Auxi
l
iar
yver
bs

Auxil
i
aryverbsaresocall
edbecausetheyhelpt
ofor
mt hevar
ioustenses
,moods,
andvoicesofotherver
bs.Thepri
nci ebe,do,andhave.Theyar
palonesar eal
so
cal
ledhelpi
ngverbs
.

Modal
ver
bs

Therei safurt
hers
etofauxil
iar
yverbsknownasmodal verbsormodal auxi
li
ary
verbs .
Thesecombinewithotherver
bstoexpr
essnecessi
ty,possi
bil
i
ty,
intenti
on,or
abil
ity.Themodalauxi
li
aryverbsaremust,
shal
l,
wil
l,shoul
d, woul
d,ought(to)
,can,
could,may, andmight
.Forexample:

Phr
asal
ver
bs

Aphrasalverbisaver
bthatismadeupofamai
nverbtoget
herwit
hanadver
bora
pr
eposit
ion,orbot
h.Typi
cal
l
y, t
hei
rmeani
ngi
snotobvi
ousfr
om t
hemeani
ngsoft
he
i
ndivi
dualwordsthemsel
ves
.Forexampl
e:

Shehasal
waysl
ookeddownonme.

Fi
ght
ingbr
okeoutamongagr
oupof40men.

Regul
arandi
rr
egul
arver
bs

AnEngl
ishverbcanber
egularori
rr
egul
ar.
Regul
arver
bsf
ormt
hei
rpas
tandpas
t
par
ti
ci
plefor
msbyadding–ed.
Exampl
esar
egi
venbel
ow.

Walk–wal
ked–walked
Pai
nt–pai
nted–pai
nted
Work–worked–worked

I
rr
egularverbsfor
mt hei
rpastandpastpar
ti
ci
plef
ormsi
ndi
ff
erentways
.Ther
ear
e
mainl
ythreetypesofir
regul
arver
bs.

Ver
bsi
nwhi
chall
thethr
eeformsarethes ame(e.
g.put–put–put
)
Ver
bsi
nwhi
chtwoofthethr
eefor
msar ethesame(e.
g.si
t–sat–sat
)
Ver
bsi
nwhi
chall
thr
eeformsaredi
fferent(e.
g.dr
ink–dr
ank–drunk)

Somever
bscanbebot
hregul
arandi
rr
egul
ar.
Exampl
esar
e:

Bur
n–bur
nt–bur
nt(ir
regular
)
Bur
n–bur
ned–burned(regul
ar)

Dr
eam –dr
eamt–dr
eamt(ir
regular
)
Dr
eam –dr
eamed–dreamed(regul
ar)

I
nt hecontextofverbs,weus et het ermi nfl
ecti
ont ot al
kaboutt hepr oces
sof
changi
ngaver bfor
mt oshow tense,mood ( t
heform ofthever
bthatshowsthemode
ormannerinwhi
chathoughtisexpr
essed),number( i
.e.si
ngularorplur
al),andperson
(i
.
e.fi
rstper
son,
secondperson,orthi
rdper son).

4-
Adver
b
Anadver bisawor dwhi chweus et
omodi fythemeani ngofadject
ive,verborother
partsofspeech.Itisoneoft hepartsofspeechwhi chtell
sushow,wher e,when,in
whatmanner ,andt owhatext entanactionisperfor
medi nthes entence.Someof
theadverbsendwi th' l
y'(whichar eusedt oexpresshow anact ionisperformed)
suchascar eful
ly,gracefull
y,etc.However,somear ewi t
hout'
ly'suchaswel l,ver
y,
fast
,never,now, mos t
,far,l
east,more,l
ess,t
here,etc.

Shewass
ingi
ngbeaut
if
ull
y(manner
)ataconcer
t(pl
ace)l
astSunday(
ti
me)

TypesofAdver
b

Di
ffer
entki
ndsofadverbs,expres
singdi
ff
erentmeani
ng,ar
edes
cri
bedbel
ow wi
th
pr
operdefi
nit
ionandexamples:

Adver
bofTi
me
Adverboftimeisanadver bwhi chtel
lsusaboutt i
meofhappeni ngsort i
meof
somethi
ngisdoneinthes ent
ence.Adverbsofti
mear eusedinthebeginni
ng( asa
for
m ofemphas i
s)orend oft he sent
ence.Adverbsoft ime ar
el i
ke already,
aft
erwards
,immedi
ately,
always,l
astmont h,
soon,t
hen,now,andyester
day.

Forexampl
e:

 Headmitt
edtohospi
tal
anddi
edyes
ter
day.
 Myfact
orycaughtf
ir
eandbur
neddownint
hel
astmont
h.

I
havecompl
etedmyhomewor
kal
ready.

Adver
bofPl
ace

Adverbofpl
aceisanadver bwhichtel
l
susaboutt
heplacewheresomethi
ngisdone
orhappensinthesentence.I
tisusedgener
all
yaft
ertheverb,obj
ectorendoft he
sent
ence.Adverbsofplacearelikebel
ow,her
e,above,i
nsi
de,outsi
de,t
here,over
ther
e,under
,upstai
rs,
etc.

Forexampl
e:

 Weneedtostopheref
ordinner
.
 Hewaseati
ngunderthetabl
e.
 Abi
rdfl
yaboveinthesky.

Adver
bofManner

Adver
bofmanneri sanadver bwhichtell
susaboutmannerofhow somethi
ngi
s
doneorhappensi nthesentence.Suchtypeofadver
bsaregener
all
yendwi t
h'l
y'
suchascheerf
ull
y,badl
y,quickl
y,happil
y,angr
il
y,s
adl
y,s
lowl
y.However,s
omeare
si
mpleli
kefas
t,well
,hard,
etc.

Forexampl
e:

 Iwenttoschool
cheerf
ull
y.
 Herunsfast
.
 Wecelebratedt
eacher
'sdayhappi
l
y.

Adver
bofDegr
eeorQuant
it
y

Adver
bofdegr eeorquant
it
yisanadverbwhichtel
lsusaboutt
helevelorextentof
somethi
ngisdoneorhappensi nthesentence.I
tisusedbeforetheadjecti
veor
adver
b.Adverbsofdegr
eeorquant
ityar
eli
keal mos
t,near
ly,
qui
te,much,real
l
y, t
oo,
ver
y,so,et
c.
Forexampl
e:

 I
twastoohardt
askf
orustocomplet
e.(
adverbi
susedbef
oreadj
ect
ive)
 I
am f
eeli
ngreal
l
ysadformyfri
end'
sfat
herdeat
h.

Adver
bofNumber

Adver
bofnumberi susedtos how numberofact i
onoft heverbinas entence.
Adver
bsofnumberarel
i
kefi
rst
ly,secondl
y,once,
yearl
y,never
,twi
ce,
las
tly,
etc.

Forexampl
e:

 Ieatfoodt
wiceaday.
(int
hiss
ent
ence,
'twi
ce'
isanadver
bofnumber
)
 Hes awmeonce.

5.
Adj
ect
ive
Adj
ecti
veisawordt
hatdescri
besorcl
ari
fi
esanoun.Adjecti
vesdescri
benounsby
gi
vingsomei
nfor
mat
ionaboutanobj
ect’
ssi
ze,
shape,age,col
or,or
igi
normateri
al.

 I
tsabi
’ gtable. (si
ze)
 I
tsar
’ oundt abl e.(shape)
 I
tsanol
’ dt able. (
age)
 I
tsabr
’ ownt able.(color )
 I
tsanEngl
’ i
sht able. (
or i
gin)
 I
tsawoodent
’ able.(mat er i
al)
 I
tsal
’ ovelytabl e.(opinion)
 I
tsabr
’ okent abl e.(obs ervation)
 I
tsacof
’ feetabl e.(pur pos e)

Ki
ndsofAdj
ect
ives
:

Al
ladjecti
vesarenotthesame.Theymodi
fynounsandpr onounsdiffer
ent
ly,and
j
ustl
i
ket heotherpar
tsofs
peech,
ther
earedi
ff
erentki
ndsofadject
ives
.Theseare:

1
.Adj
ect
iveofqual
i
ty(
Des
cri
pti
ve)
Amongthedi
ffer
entki
ndsofadj
ecti
ves,des
cri
pti
veadjecti
vesar
eprobablyt
hemost
commonones.Theysi
mplysaysomethi
ngaboutt hequali
tyortheki
ndofthenoun
orpr
onounthey’
reref
err
ingto.
Adj
ecti
vesofQualityanswerthequest
ion:Ofwhat
ki
nd?

Exampl
es:

 Sabaiswitt
y.
 Sheisti
red.

2.
Adj
ect
ivesofNumberorAdj
ect
ivesofQuant
it
y

Asthenamesuggest
s,t
hiski
ndofadj
ect
iveans
wer
stheques
tion,“
How many?”or
“Howmuch?”Exampl
es:

 Twent
y-onestudent
sfai
ledtheexam.
 Thepl
antsneedmor ewater
.

3.
Demons
trat
iveAdj
ect
ives

Demonst
rat
iveadject
ivespoi
ntoutpronounsandnouns
,andal
wayscomebef
ore
thewor
dstheyareref
erri
ngto.Exampl
es:

 Iusedtobuythiski
ndofshi
rt
s.
 When t he ol
d man t
ri
pped overt
hatwi
re,he dr
opped a whol
e bag of
grocer
ies.

4.
Pos
ses
siveAdj
ect
ives

Obvi
ousl
y,thi
skindofadject
ivess
howsowner
shi
porpos ses
sion.As
idef
rom t
hat
,
poss
ess
iveadject
ivesal
wayscomebef
oret
henoun.Exampl
es:

 Mydressi
sbeauti
ful
.
 Al
isol
dhishous
e.

5.
Int
err
ogat
iveAdj
ect
ives

I
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ivesas
kques
tionsandar
eal
waysf
oll
owedbyanoun.

Exampl
es:

 Whatmovieareyouwatching?
 Whi
chplantss
houldbeplacedoverher
e?

6.
Dis
tri
but
iveAdj
ect
ive
Di
str
ibut
iveAdj
ect
iver
efert
oeachandever
yper
son/t
hings
epar
atel
yiscal
l
ed

Di
str
ibut
iveAdj
ect
ive.
i.
e.Each,
Ever
y,ei
ther
,nei
ther
,any,
one,
bot
het
c.

Exampl
es

Eachboywasgi
vesachocol
ate.

Ever
ynat
ioni
spr
oudofi
tscul
tur
e

Nei
theroft
hem gotmaj
ori
ty.

Ei
therofyoucancol
l
ectt
hepr
ize.

I
loveanys
ongt
hatSaki
ras
ings
.

Choos
etheoneyoul
i
ke.

Bot
hoft
hem ar
eint
her
oom.

Whatar
etheDegr
eesofAdj
ect
ives
?

Thereareonlythreedegr eesorlevel
sofadj ecti
ves(al
soknown asdegreesof
comparis
on)namely,pos
iti
ve,comparat
ive,andsuperl
ati
ve.Whenyoutal
kaboutor
descr
ibeonl
yas i
nglepers
on, pl
ace,
orthing,youshoul
dusethepos
iti
vedegr
ee.

Exampl
es:

 Shei
sabeaut
if
ull
ady.
 I
twasamemorabl
etri
p.

I
fon t he ot
herhand,you are comparing t
wo persons,pl
aces,orthi
ngs,i
tis
appr
opr i
atetous
et hecompar
ati
vedegr eeoft heword.Nor
mally,youwi
l
lneedto
add“-er”totr
ansf
ormthewordintoitscompar at
ivef
orm oraddt hewor
d“more.
”
 Al
so,
thewor
d“t
han”s
houl
dbeaddedaf
tert
headj
ect
ivei
nthecompar
ati
vedegr
ee.

Exampl
es:

 Thi
sswi
mmingpooli
sbiggerthanthatone.
 Ashl
eyi
smorei
ntel
l
igentthanAldr
in.

*Note:Forwordsendingin“y,
”youshouldfi
rstchanget y”i
he“ nt i
o“,
”andt
henadd
“-
er”(e.
g.,
lovel
y-l
ovel
i
er;pret
ty-pr
ett
ier
;tas
ty-tasti
er)

Last
ly,ifyou arecomparing morethan twot hi
ngs,thesuperl
ati
vef or
m ofthe
adj
ectivesshouldbeusedandt heword“the”shouldbeaddedbeforetheadj
ect
ive.
I
nor dertotransf
ormtheadject
ivei
ntoit
ss uper
lati
vefor
m,youjusthavetoaddthe
suf
fi
x“ -es
t”ortheword“most.
”

Exampl
es:

 Thati
sbyfar,
thetal
l
estt
reeIhaveeverseeni
nmyent
ir
eli
fe.
 Thi
sisthemostcr
uci
almatchoft
heseason.

*Not
e:Forwor dsendingin“y,
”youshouldfi
rstchangethe“y”i
nt i
o“,
”andt
henadd
“-
est
”(e.
g.,
lovely-
lovel
ies
t;pr
ett
y-pr
etti
est;t
asty-t
asti
est)

6.
Prepos
iti
on:
Awor dthati
sus
edbef
oreanoun,anounphr
ase,orapr
onoun,connect
ingi
tto
anot
herword:
Thebooki
sont
het
abl
e.Thecati
sundert
het
abl
e.

TypesofPr
epos
iti
ons

Ther
earethreetypesofpr
epos
iti
ons
,incl
udi
ngt
imepr
epos
iti
ons
,pl
acepr
epos
iti
ons
,
anddir
ect
ionpreposi
ti
ons.
Ti
mepr
epos
iti
ons

Pr
epos
iti
on Ti
meCat
egor
ies

at
cl
ockt
imes
,exactt
imesofday,
night
,hol
i
dayper
iods

i
n
mont
hs,
year
s,mor
ning/
aft
ernoon/
eveni
ng,
seas
ons
,cent
uri
es,
eras
on
days
,dat
es,
hol
i
days
,weekends
,days
+mor
ning/
aft
ernoon/
eveni
ng

Pl
acepr
epos
iti
ons

Areusedtos howtheposi
ti
onorl
ocat
ionofonet
hingwi
thanot
her
,suchas
,at
,in,
on,Under/Below,
betweenandAbove/Over

I
ngeneral
weuse:atforaPOI
NT,att
hecorner,
att
hebuss
top,
att
hedoor,
att
he
t
opofthepage,
inforanENCLOSEDSPACE

onf
oraSURFACE

Onmeansthats
omethi
ngi
sinapos
iti
ont
hati
sphys
ical
l
ytouchi
ng,
cover
ingor
at
tachedt
osomethi
ng.

Thecl
ockont
hewal
li
ssl
ow.

Bet
ween

Bet
weennor
mal
l
yref
erst
osomet
hingi
nthemi
ddl
eoft
woobj
ect
sort
hings(
or
pl
aces
).
 Ther
eisas
ea bet
weenEngl
andandFr
ance,

Above/Over

AboveandOverhaveasi
mil
armeaning.Thebot
hmean"atahigherpos
iti
on
thanX"butabovenor
mal
l
yrefer
stobeingdir
ect
ly(
ver
ti
cal
l
y)aboveyou.

Pl
anesnor
mal
l
yfl
yabovet
hecl
ouds
.

Under/Bel
ow

UnderandBel
ow haveas
imi
l
armeani
ng.
Theymeanatal
owerl
evel
.(Somet
hing
i
saboveit
).

Yourl
egsar
eundert
het
abl
e.

Di
rect
ionpr
epos
iti
onsar
ethos
eindi
cat
iveofdi
rect
ion,
suchasacr
oss
,up,
anddown.

acr
ossont
heot
hers
ideof Myf
ri
endl
i
vesacr
osst
hes
treetf
rom me.

up f
rom l
owt
ohi
gh Thes
tor
eisr
ightupt
her
oad.

down f
rom hi
ght
olow Theboyt
umbl
eddownt
hehi
l
l.

7.
Conj
unct
ions
Conjunct
ionsarewordst
hatl
i
nkot
herwor
ds,phr
asesorcl
aus
es.Ther
ear
ethr
ee
typesofconj
uncti
ons
:

1-
Coordi
nating conj
unct
ionsconnecttwo wordsorgroupsofwor dswithsi
milar
val
ues.Theymayconnectt wowor ds
,twophrases
,twoindependentcl
aus
esortwo
dependentclauses.
Connectstwowor ds:JohnandReggi est
ayedupallni
ghtpract
ici
ngtheirgui
tar
s.
Connectstwophr ases:Thes quir
rel s
curr
iedupthetr
eet r
unkandontoal owbranch.
Connectstwocl auses :Severalmanager ssatwit
ht hei
rbackstous ,andIcoul d
al
mos thearthem snickeri
ngatusl owlyworker
s.
Ther
ear eonl ysevencoor dinatingconjuncti
onsintheEngli
shlanguage,andt hey
areoftenremember edbyus i
ngt heacronym “FANBOYS":f
or,and,nor,but
,or,yet
andso
2-Subor
dinat
ing:conj
unct
ionsconnectt
wogroupsofwordsbymakingonei nt
oa
subordi
nati
ngclaus
e.Thesubor
dinati
ngcl
aus
eactsasonehugeadverb,ans
wering
thequesti
ons“when"or“
why"aboutt
hemai
ncl
aus
e,ori
mpos
ingcondi
ti
onsor
oppos
iti
ononit
.
Here ar
es ome exampl
esofsubor
dinati
ng conj
unct
ionschangi
ng a cl
aus
eint
o
adver
bials
ubor
dinati
ngcl
aus
esindi
ff
erentways:
 Icangos hoppi
ngafterI
finis
hs t
udyingformyexam. (when)
 Becaus ethenightwasyoung, Gert
rudedecidedtotakeawalk.
(why)
 I
’ll
giveyouadi meifyougi vemeadol lar
.(condi
ti
on)
 Althoughheneverf i
guredoutwhy,Hannawi nkedonherwayoutt hedoor
.
(opposit
ion)

3-Correl
ati
veconjunct
ions
:arealwaysusedinpair
s.Theyar
esi
mil
artocoordi
nat
ing
conjuncti
onsbecausetheyjoi
nsentenceel
ementsthatar
esi
mil
ari
nimport
ance.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeexampl
esofcoor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions
:
Both,and:Bot hAliandZiamadethevar
sit
yteam thi
syear.
Neither,nor:Nei
therAliandZi
amadethevarsi
tyteam t
hisyear
.
Notonl y,butalso:Notonlydi
dAl
imakethestrongteam,butheal
sobecomeoneof
thes t
ronges tpl
ayers
8-
Int
erj
ect
ions
I
nterj
ecti
onsarewor dsusedtoexpressst
rongfeeli
ngors uddenemoti
on.Theyar e
i
ncludedinas entence(usual
lyatthestar
t)toexpressasenti
mentsuchass urpri
se,
dis
gust,j
oy,excit
ement ,orenthus
iasm.Aninter
jecti
onisnotgrammati
call
yr elat
ed
toanyotherpartofthes ent
ence.
Examplesofi
nterject
ion:
Aah,Ahh,
Eh,
Wow,Hey,Well
,What,Hurr
ah,Hmph, Oh,Oops,Ouch, Uhoh, Yeah,Uh,
Hush,Hmm,Um,Br
avo,Hel
l
o,Ugh,Ah,Haha, Well
done,Alas,Fie,Hi,Yes
,Ouch,
Hel
p,HappyBi
rt
hday,
Goodmorning,dear,oops
,huh,yum, oy,etc.Forexample:

 Good!Nowwecancel ebrat
ethepar
ty.
 Oh,what '
sas ur
prise
 Hey!Getoutoft hebuildi
ng!
 Yes!Icandoiteas i
l
y.
 No!I r
uns ol
ong.
 Well!Ihaveagoodnews .

TypesofI
nter
ject
ion
I
nterj
ecti
oni sdi
videdi
ntofol
l
owingtypesonthebasisofwaytoexpres
sinter
ject
ions
i
nthes entencesuchasgreeti
ng,j
oy,s
urpri
se,
approval,
sor
row,att
enti
on,and
cal
li
ng.

 Hey!Getofft
hatfl
oor!
 Oh,thati
sas ur
pri
se.
 Good!Nowwecanmoveon.
I
nter
ject
ionsf
orGr
eet
ing
Thist
ypeofi
nter
ject
ionisusedi
nthesent
encetoindi
cat
etheemot
ionofwar
mtht
o
thepers
onmeeti
ngwi thsuchashey,
hell
o,hi
,et
c.

Forexampl
e:

 Hey!Ni
cet
os eeyouher
eint
hepar
ty.
 Hel
lo!I
am Al
i
.

I
nter
ject
ionsf
orJ
oy

Thi
stypeofi
nter
ject
ioni
susedi
nthesentencetoindi
catei
mmedi
atej
oyand
happi
nessonanyhappyoccasi
onoccur
reds uchashurr
ah,wow,
hurr
ay,
etc.

Forexampl
e:

 Wow!Youar
elooki
nggor
geous
.
 Hur
ray!
Wesuccess
ful
l
ywonthi
sfoot
bal
l ch.
mat

I
nter
ject
ionsf
orAppr
oval
Thi
st ypeofi
nterj
ect
ioni
susedi
nthes
entencetoexpres
sthest
rongs
enseof
approvaloragreementf
ors
omethi
ngthathashappenedsuchaswel
ldone,
bravo,
bri
l
li
ant ,
etc.

Forexampl
e:

Wel
ldone!Youwi
nther
ace. Br
avo!Youhavegott
hef
ir
stpos
iti
on.

I
nter
ject
ionsf
orAt
tent
ion
Thi
stypeofinter
jecti
onisusedi
nthes
ent
encet
odr
awat
tent
ionofs
omeones
uch
asl
ook,behold,l
i
s t
en,hush,
etc.

Forexampl
e:

 Look!Yous oar
rogant.
 Li
sten!Ihavenevercopiedyou.
 Behold!Someonestrangeisther
e.

I
nter
ject
ionsf
orSur
pri
se
Thistypeofi
nterj
ect
ioni
susedinthesent
encetoexpr
essthes
trongsenseof
surpr
iseaboutsomethi
ngthathashappenedsuchasha,what
,hey,ah,oh,
eh,
et Forexampl
c. e:
 What!Youfai
led.
 Oh!Reall
yyoucompl
etedt
het
ask,
Ican'
tbel
i
eve.
 Ah!Igotnewjob.

I
nter
ject
ionsf
orSor
row
Thist
ypeofi
nterj
ect
ionisus
edinthesentencetoexpr
esstheemoti
onofsadnes
s
aboutsomet
hingunfor
tunatehashappenedsuchasalas,
ouch,ah,
oh,et
c.For
example:

 Al
as!Heisnomor
e.
 Ouch!I
t'
sver
ypai
ning.

Ar
ti
cl
e
Anar
ticl
eisawordusedbefor
eanounthatindi
cat
eswhet
herornott
her
efer
encei
s
toas
pecifi
cent
it
yorenti
ti
esoranuns
pecif
icone.

Thereareonlythreeart
icl
es,a,anandthe.Aandan,thei
ndef
ini
teart
icl
es,ar
eused
torefertoas i
ngleanduns peci
fi
edenti
ty.A i
susedwit
hnounsthats t
artwit
ha
consonantsound,asinabat ter
y,whi
eani
l susedwit
hwordst
hatstar
twithavowel
sound,asinanink.

The,t
hedef i
nit
eart
icl
e,ref
erstoas pecifi
cent i
tyorenti
ties
.Thesingl
eentit
ymay
als
obemadeupofmul t
ipl
eindivi
dualenti
ties,asi
n,forexample,t
heclassof1999,
theHayyat
iansort
heIEEE(Ins
tit
uteofElectr
icalandEl
ectroni
csEngi
neers)
.

Ar
ti
cl
esar
eal
socons
ider
edadj
ect
ives
,becaus
etheyaddi
nfor
mat
ionaboutnouns
.

Phr
ases
,Sent
encesandCl
aus
es
Phr
ase:
Aphras
eisagroupofwordsinEngl
i
sh.
Aphr
asecanbes
hor
torl
ong,
buti
tdoesnot
i
ncl
udethesubj
ectandverb.

Typesofphas
es

NounPhr
ase
Anounphr
asei
sanynounorpr
onounal
ongwi
thi
tsmodi
fi
ers
:
Thes
chool
chi
l
dren,
Yes
ter
day’
snews
paper
,Anol
dmanandaboy

Ver
bPhr
ase
Aver
bphr
asei
sanynumberofver
bswor
kingt
oget
her

Hadbeens
leepi
ng,
Wil
lcont
act
,Mayhavewr
it
ten

Pr
epos
iti
onal
Phr
ase
Aprepos
iti
onal
phr
aseal
wayss
tar
tswi
thapr
epos
iti
onandendswi
thanounor
pr
onoun

Dur
ingt
heyear
,Des
pit
ecompl
aint
s,I
nthes
ummer

Adver
bphr
ase
Asi
mpleadverbphr
aseus
ual
l
ycont
ainsanadver
bandatl
eas
toneot
herwor
d
bef
oreoraf
teri
t.
Sur
pris
ingl
ywell
,Verycaref
ull
y,Qui
teeas
il
y,Ar
oundt
hes
un,
Yester
dayaft
ernoon,Aft
erafewminut
es

Adj
ect
ivephr
ase

Anadjecti
ve phras
eisa gr oup ofwordsthatdes
cri
be a noun orpronoun i
na
sent
ence.Theadjecti
veinanadjecti
vephras
ecanappearatthestar
t,end,ori
nthe
middleofthephrase.Theadject
ivephr
asecanbeplacedbefor
e,orafter
,thenoun
orpronouninthesentence.

Thefi
nalexamswer eunbel
ievablydif
fi
cult
.
Mom saidthecostofacari
swayt oohigh.
Yourdressi
sextr
emelyexpensive.

Sent
ence
Asent
encei
sagroupofwordsthatmakescomplet
es ens
e,cont
ainsamainverb,
andbegi
nswit
hacapi
tall
ett
er.
Sentencesareus
edt oconveycomplet
ethought.

Sent
encepat
ter
n:

Thet
womos
tbas
icpar
tsofas
ent
encear
ethes
ubj
ectandpr
edi
cat
e

Subj
ectandPr
edi
cat
e
Ever
ycompl et
esentencecontai
nst wopart
s:asubj
ectandapredi
cat
e.Thesubj
ect
i
swhat( orwhom)thes entenceisabout
,whil
ethepredi
cat
etell
ssomethi
ngabout
thesubj
ect.
Inthef
ollowi
ngs entences
,

Her
eads
.”

Thi
sispr
ett
ysi
mpl
e,ast
her
ear
eonl
ytwowor
ds.

Thesubj she,
ecti andthepredicat
eisr
eads.
Canyousti
ll
ident
if
ythesubjectandpr
edi
catewi
thmor
ewor
ds?

“
Her
eadst
hebook.
”

Thes
ubjecti
ssti
lhe,
l butt
hepr edi
cat
ehassomeextr
awords:readst
hebook.Si
nce
i
t’
sst
il
lmodif
yingthesubj
ectandcontai
nsaver
b,i
t’
ssti
l
lser
vingthesamefunct
ion.

“
Her
eadst
hebooki
nthepar
konTues
days
.”

I
nthi
ssent
ence,

I
t’
sst
il
lhe

Thes ubjectandpr edicatemakeupt het wobas icstructuralpar

tsofanycompl ete
sentence.In addit
ion,t hereareotherel ements,cont ai
ned withi
nt hesubjector
predicat
e,t hataddmeani ngordetail
.Thes eelement sincludethedirectobject
,
i
ndirectobject,subjectcompl ementandobj ectcompl ement .Al
loftheseelements
can be expanded and f urt
hercombi ned intos i
mpl e,compound,compl ex,or
compound/ complexs entences.

Obj
ect
Anobjectisanounorpr onount hati
sgovernedbyaver
borapr
epos
iti
on.
Ther
ear ethreekindsofobj ect:
 DirectObj ect(e.
g.,
Iknow him.)
 IndirectObject(e.
g.,Givehertheprize.
)
 Obj ectofaPr eposi
tion(e.g.
,Si
twiththem.)

Di
rectObj
ect
:
Adirectobjecti
sanounorpr onounthatrecei
vesthever
b’sact
ion.Aneasytr
icki
s
toknowt hatthedi
rectobj
ectanswer
st hequesti
ons“
what?"Now,thi
ssent
encehas
nodirectobject
:
Shecooked.
Rightnow,wemaybeas king,“whatdi dshecook?”Byaddi ngadi rectobject
,we
canaddmor einfor
mat iont oas entence.Let’
saddadi r
ectobjectt oans werthat
ques ti
on:
Shecookedr i
ce.
I
nt hiss ent
ence,the ver bi s“cooked.”So,t he directobjects hould bewhati s
receivi
ngt heverb’
saction—i notherwor ds,whatisbeingcooked?“ Rice”isthedir
ect
object,becauseitgetscooked( verb)
.Here’sanotherexampl e:
Iwrappedapr esent.
Whatdi dyouwr ap?Apr esent.“Pres
ent”isthedirectobjectbecauseyou“ wrapped”
i
t.

I
ndi
rectObj
ect
Ani ndir
ectobj ectist
henounorpr onounthatr
ecei
vest hedir
ectobject
.Itanswers
theques tion“ t
o/forwhat
?”or“t
o/forwhom?”Let’
ss t
artwithas ent
encewi t
houta
dir
ectobj ect:
Shecookedr i
ce.
Now,l et’
sas k,“forwhom di
dthedogcookt hepopcorn?”Ouransweristheindir
ect
object,whi chwecanaddt othesentence:

Shecookedri
ceforme.
“me”isthei
ndir
ectobj
ectbecaus
eitget
sther
ice.
Her
e’sanot
herexampl
e:

I
twasmybi r
thday,sosheboughtmeapr esent
.
Here,“pr
esent”isthedi r
ectobject
,maki
ng“ me”t
hei
ndi
rectobj
ect
,becaus
eshe
recei
vesthepresentthatshebought.

Obj
ectoft
hePr
epos
iti
on
Theobjectofthepr epos
iti
onist heobjectthati
spair
edwi ththepreposi
ti
onina
sent
ence.Itanswerstheques t
ion“wher eorwhendidthi
sallhappen?”andfol
l
ows
thef
orm preposi
ti
on+obj ectofthepreposi
ti
on.Herear
eaf ewexamples:
 Athome(
place)
 Dur
ingt
heweek(
ti
me)
 I
nthecar(
place)
 Af
termi
dni
ght(
ti
me)
 Ont
het
abl
e(pl
ace)
 Wi
thi
nanhour(
ti
me)
Obj
ectCompl
ement
Anobjectcompl
ement( al
socalledanobjecti
vecompl ement)f
oll
owsadirectobj
ect.
I
tmaybeawor dorphr asethatgivesfur
thermeaningt othedi
rectobj
ect
.Inasense,
i
texpl
ainswhatthedirectobjecthasbecome.
Anobj
ectcomplementcanbeanoun, pronoun,oradjecti
ve.
Obj
ectComplementExampl es
:
 Hemadehe rhappy.
 “her”i
sthedirectobject
 “happy”ist
heobj ectcompliment
 “happy”iswhats he,thedir
ectobject(
“her”
),hasbecome.
Anobj
ectcompl
ementgi
vesf
urt
hermeani
ngt
otheobj
ect
.

Obj
ectCompl
ement
sasNouns
Anounobj
ectcompl
ementcanbeas
ingl
ewor
doraphr
ase.

 Mymot
herbroughtmeanewdr es
s.
 “
me”i
sthedirectobj
ect
 “
anewdress”isanounphrase
 “
anewdress”istheobj
ectcompli
ment
 “
anewdress”iswhatme,thedir
ectobj
ect
,hasbecome
Obj
ectCompl
ement
sasPr
onouns
 Theychosethecandi
datewhowasbes t.
 “thecandi
date”i
sthedi
rectobj
ect
 “whowasbes t”i
sarel
ati
vepronounphr as
e
 “whowasbes t”i
stheobj
ectcompliment
 “whowasbes t”i
swhatthecandidate,thedir
ectobj
ect
,hasbecome
Obj
ectCompl
ement
sasAdj
ect
ives
Anadj
ect
iveobj
ectcompl
ementcanbeas
ingl
ewor
doraphr
ase.

 Weconsi
deredhim wor thy.
 “
him”isthedirectobject
 “
worthy”isanadj ecti
ve
 “
worthy”istheobj ectcompliment
 “
worthy”iswhathe, thedir
ectobj
ect(
“hi
m”)
,hasbecome

Subj
ectCompl
ement

As ubjectcomplementisawor dorphr
ase(us
uall
yanadj
ecti
vephrase,
noun
phrase, orpr
onoun)thatfol
lowsali
nki
ngverbanddes
cri
besorrenamesthe
subjectofthesentence.Al
socaledas
l ubj
ecti
vecompl
ement.

I
ntr
adi
ti
onalgr
ammar ,asubj
ectcompl
ementisusual
l
yident
if
iedasei
ther
apr
edi
catenominat
iveorapredi
cat
eadject
ive.
Exampl
esandObs
ervat
ions
 Theli
ghti
ntheroom waswar m andsof
t.
 Mr.Al
iwasmyfourth-
gradeteacher.
 Myfourt
h-gr
adeteacherwasexcepti
onall
yki
nd.

TypesofSent
ences
Ther
ear
efourmai
ntypesofs
ent
ences
:

 Declarat
iveorAffi
rmat i
veSentences
 CommandorI mper at
iveSentence
 Questi
onorInter
rogativeSentences
 Excl
amatoryoroptati
veSent ences

Si
mpl
eorDecl
arat
iveSent
ence

tomakes t
atements
.ASimples
ent
encei
sonewhi
chhasonl
yoneSubj
ectandone
Predi
cat
e.Itendswi
thperi
od(.
)

 It
ooksomemoneyoutofthebank.
 Theshops
taysopenunt
il9p.
m.

Ther
earethr
eetypesofs
impl
esent
ences
CompoundSent
ence

Acompounds entencehast
woi
ndependentcl
aus
esj
oinedbyal
i
nki
ngwor
d(and,
but
,or
,so,yet
, however)
.

 I
‘m happy,butmykidsarealwayscomplai
ning.
 Robertdoesn’
teatmeat,somom madeas pecialvegetar
iandi
shforhim.
 Mybr ot
herandI wentt
ot hemalll
astni
ght,butwedidn’tbuyanyt
hing.
 Thi
snewl aptopcomputerhasalr
eadycrashedtwice,andIhavenoideawhy.

Not
ethateachs
ent
encehasTWOs
ubj
ect
sandTWOver
bphr
ases
.

Compl
exSent
ence

Acompl
exs
ent
encehasonei
ndependentcl
aus
eandoneormor
edependent
cl
aus
es.

Adependentcl
aus
ecannotbeacompl
etes
ent
encebyi
tsel
f.

 I
’
m happy,
event
houghI
don’
tmakemuchmoney.
  Rober
t,afri
endI’veknownsincehi
ghs chool
,doesn’
teatmeat.
 Aft
ergett
inghomef rom work,mybrot
herandI wenttothemalll
astni
ght.
 Thi
snewlapt opcomputer,
whi chI
boughtyesterday,
hasalr
eadycrashed
twi
ce.

Compound-
Compl
exSent
ence

Acompound-complexs
ent
encecont
ains3ormor
ecl
aus
es:2i
ndependentandat
l
east1dependentcl
aus
e.

 I
’m happy,eventhoughIdon’
tmakemuchmoney,
butmyki
dsar
eal
ways
complai
ningsincewecan’taf
for
dtobuyt
henewestt
oys
.

2-
Ques
tionorI
nter
rogat
iveSent
ence

t
oas
kques
tionsormaker
eques
ts.
Itendswi
thques
tionmar
k(?)

CanIhel
pyou?
Coul
dyouopenthedoor
?
CommandorI
3- mper ati
veSent
ence

t
ogiveordersort
oexpres
swish,Shar
ingani
nvit
ati
on,Gi
vingins
truct
ions,Shar
inga
r
eques
t,Givi
ngademand.I
tendswit
hper i
od(
.)orexcl
amat or
ymar k(!)

Comehereatonce!
Bri
ngaglassofwat
er.
St
oparguing!

4-
Excl
amat
orySent
ence

toexpressors
harestrongfeel
i
ngsorexci
tement
.Itendswi
thexcl
amat
ionmar
k.(
!)
Alas
!Wehavel ostt
hemat ch.
Hurrah!I
havegotfi
rstposi
ti
onint
heexam. .
I
t’ssocol
d!

Cl
aus
es
Acl
ausei
sagr oupofwordst
hati
ncl
udesasubjectandaverb.Aclausemayf
orm
par
tofasent
enceoritmaybeacomplet
esentenceinit
sel
f.Forexample:

Ani ndependentclausecanexpressacompl etet hought.Ani ndependentclausecan

standalonei nas entence.I
tcontainsas ubjectandaver binitss mall
estform.A
clausemayal soincl
udemodi f
ier
sandaver bpr edicat
e.Itisacompl etethoughtand
thes mall
estunitofgrammart hati
ss ynt
acticall
yaccur ate.Everysentencecontai
ns
atleastonemai nclause.Amai nclausemayf orm partofcompounds entenceora
compl
exs
ent
ence,
buti
tal
somakess
ens
eoni
tsown,
asi
nthi
sexampl
e:

Exampl
eofI
ndependentCl
aus
es:

 eatbananasi
I nt
hekit
chen.
 I
ntheki
tchen,
Ieat.

Whati
saDependentCl
aus
es?

Dependentcl ause def

ini
ti
on:Dependentcl auses containas ubjectand ver b.
However,theycannotstandaloneasani ndependentthought
.Theymus tbejoined
withani ndependentclausetobegr ammat ical
l
ycor rect
.A dependentcl ausei s
usual
l
yas upport
ingpar
tofas entence,anditcannotstandbyitselfasameani ngful
pr
oposit
ion( i
dea).Acompletethoughtisal s
ocalledamai nclauseori ndependent
cl
ause

Exampl
eofDependentCl
aus
e:

 Ever
yni
ghtbef
oreIgot
obed,
Ieatbananas
.

Thi
sexamplecont ai
nstheIC,“I
eatbananas.”However,adependentclausenow
opensthesentence.Whil
ethedependentclausecont
ainsasubjectandaver b(
“I
go”)
,thedependentclauseit
sel
fcannotst
andal oneacompletethought.

Exampl
eofDependentCl
aus
e:

 Ever
yni
ghtbef
oreIgot
obed

Thi
sisnotacompl
etet
houghtandther
eforenotasent
encei
nEngl
i
sh.Everynight
bef
oreIgotobed…whathappens?Thi
sideamustbejoi
nedwit
hanindependent
cl
ausetobegrammati
cal
l
ycorrect
.

Condi
ti
onal
claus
e
Acondi
ti
onal
clausei
sonethatusual
lybegi
nswi
thi
forunl
essanddes
cri
bes
s
omethi
ngthatispos
sibl
eorprobabl
e:

I
fitl
ooksli
kerain as i
mpleshel
tercanbemadeoutofapl
ast
ics
heet
[
condit
ionalcl
ause][
maincl
ause]

I
'
llbehometomor
rowunlesstheplane'
sdelayedf
orhour
s.
[
mainclaus
e] [condit
ional
clause]
Rel
ati
vecl
aus
e
Arel
ati
vecl
ausei
soneconnect
edtoamai
ncl
aus
ebyawor
dsuchaswhi
ch,
that
,
whom,whose,
when,where,
orwho:

I
fir
sts
awherinPar
is,
wher eIl
i
vedintheear
lyni
net
ies
.
[
mainclaus
e] [rel
ati
veclaus
e]

Shewant
stobewi
thThomas
,whoisbestsuit
edt
otakecar
eofher
.
[mai
ncl
ause] [r
elat
ivecl
ause]

I
wasweari
ngthedr
esst
hatIboughttoweart
oJo'
spar
ty.
[mai
ncl
ause] [
rel
ati
veclaus
e]

Us
ingr
elat
ivecl
aus
es
Haveyoueverwonderedaboutwhent ouset
hatandwhentous ewhichorwhoi
n
thi
stypeofs
entence?Infact
,formuchoft
hetmet
i hati
sint
erchangeabl
ewith
eit
heroft
hesewords.Forexample:

You’
ret
heonl
yper
sonwhohaseverl
i
stenedt
ome.

You’
ret
heonl
yper
sont
hathaseverl
i
stenedt
ome.

I
t’
saf
il
mthats
houl
dbes
eenbyever
yone.

I
t’
saf
il
m whi
chs
houl
dbes
eenbyever
yone

Whenr eferr
ingt osomet hi
ng, r
atherthansomeone, thattendstobet heusualchoi
ce
i
never ydaywr i
tingandconver sat
ioninBri
ti
shEnglis
h. However ,t
hereisonemain
casewhenyous houldnotus ethattoint
roducear el
at i
veclause.Thi
sisrel
atedto
thefactthattherear etwot ypesofrelat
ivecl
ause:ar estr
ict
iverel
ati
veclauseanda
non-rest
ri
cti
ver elat
iveclause.

Res
tri
cti
ver
elat
ivecl
aus
e
Arestr
icti
verel
ati
veclaus
e( al
soknownasadef ini
ngrel
ati
veclause)givesessent
ial
i
nformationaboutanount hatcomesbefor
eit:
wi t
houtthi
scl
auset hesentence
wouldn’tmakemuchs ense.Arest
ri
cti
verel
ati
veclausecanbeintroducedbyt hat,
which,whose,who,orwhom. Youshouldnotpl
aceacommai nf rontofar es
tri
cti
ve
r
elati
veclause:

Shehel
doutt
hehandwhi
chwashurt
.
Shehel
doutt
hehandt
hatwashur
t.
[
mai
ncl
aus
e] [
res
tri
cti
ver
elat
ivecl
aus
e]

Youcanal
s eaveoutt
ol hatorwhi
chi
nsomer
est
ri
cti
ver
elat
ivecl
aus
es:

√Itr
emi
ndedhim oft
hehous
ethatheus edtor
entinLahore.
√Itr
emi
ndedhim oft
hehous
ewhichheus edtorenti
nLahore.
√Itr
emi
ndedhim oft
hehous
eheus edtorenti
nLahore.
[
maincl
ause] [
res
tri
cti
verel
ati
veclause]

Non-
res
tri
cti
ver
elat
ivecl
aus
e
Anon- restr
ict
iverelat
iveclause(al
socall
edanon- defi
ningr el
ati
vecl
ause)provides
extr
ai nformationthatcouldbeleftoutwithoutaf
fecti
ngt hemeaningorstructureof
thesent ence.Non-res
trict
iverel
ati
veclausesarenormallyintoducedbywhi
r ch,
whos e,who, orwhom, butneverbythat.Youshouldplaceacommai nfr
ontoft hem:

Thepai
nt,
whi
chMar
yboughtatt
hehar
dwar
est
ore,
wasbr
ightr
ed.

Ms
.Aeys
ha,
whol
i
vesnextdoor
,cl
aimst
obeanar
ti
st.

Shehel
doutherhand,
whichherfr
iendshook.
[mai
ncl
ause] [non-
res
tri
cti
verel
ati
veclaus
e]

Ifanon-
res
tri
cti
ver
elati
veclaus
eisi
nthemi
ddl
eofas
ent
ence,
yous
houl
dput
commasbef eandaf
or t
erit
:

Bi
l
l,whohadfal
lenasl
eeponthesofa,
suddenl
yrous
edhi
msel
f.
[
non-
res
tri
cti
verel
ati
vecl
ause]

MoreTypesofCl
aus
es
NounCl
ause
Anounclausei
sadependentclaus
et hatact
sasanoun. Nouncl
ausesbeginwi t
h
wordssuchashow,that
,what,whatever,
when, where,whether
,which,
whi chever
,
gwho,whoever,
whom, whomever,andwhy. Nounclausescanactassubjects,
di
rectobj
ect
s,i
ndir
ectobj
ect
s,orobject
sofapr epos
iti
on.

Exampl
eofNounCl
aus
e:

 I
rememberwhatyous
aidyes
ter
day.

Her
e, t
heunder
li
nedporti
onisthei
ndependentcl
aus
ethatcanstandal
one.
The
i
tal
i
cizedwords
,“whatyousaidyes
terday,
”ser
veasadependentnouncl
ause.
Thenounclauseisacti
ngastheobjectofthesent
ence.I
nthenounclause“yousai
d”
i
sas ubj
ectpl
usaver b.Thi
screat
estheclause(asubj
ectpl
usaverb).However,
“whatyousaidyester
day”cannotst
andal oneandther
efor
emus tbepair
edwi t
han
i
ndependentclause.

 Ihoughtwhats
t hewor
ewassost
yli
sh.
 Doyouknowwhatt
heweat
herwi
llbe?

Adj
ect
iveCl
aus
e(Al
socal
l
edRel
ati
veCl
aus
e)
Anadj ecti
veclauseisatypeofdependentclaus
ethatactsasanadject
ivei
nthe
sentence.Anadjecti
vecl
ausewil
lal
wayscont ai
nas ubj
ectandaverb.However
,it
cannots t
andaloneasacompl etethought
..Anadjecti
vecl
ausewil
lalwaysbegi
n
withoneoft hefol
l
owingwords
:

Rel
ati
vePr
onounsLi
st:That
,wher
e,who,
whom,
whi
ch

Rel
ati
veAdver
bsLi
st:When,
wher
e,why

Exampl
eofAdj
ect
iveCl
aus
e:

Theboywhom yous
awatt
hes
tor
ecommi
tt
edar
obber
y.

Theadjecti
vecl
auseisacti
ngasanadj ect
ivei
nthi
ssent
ence.Theadject
ivecl
ause
descr
ibestheboy.
Itcontai
nsas ubj
ectandaverb,
“yousaw.”However,i
tcannot
st
andal oneasacompletethought.
“Whoyous awattherobbery”i
snotacomplete
st
atement .

Addi
ti
onal
adj
ect
ivecl
aus
eexampl
es:

Pi
zza,
whi
chmos
tpeopl
elove,
isnotver
yheal
thy.

Thos
epeopl
ewhos
enamesar
eont
hel
i
stwi
l
lgot
ocamp.

Gr
andpar
emember
stheol
ddayswhent
her
ewasnot
elevi
si
on.

Fr
uitt
hati
sgr
ownor
gani
cal
l
yisexpens
ive.

Thes
t et
or hatt
heboyr
obbedi
sont
hecor
ner
.

Thecor
neroft
hes
treetwher
emyf
ami
l
yli
vesi
ssur
roundedbyi
nves
tigat
ors
.

Whati
sanAdver
bial
Claus
e?
Adver
bialcl
aus
edefini
ti
on:Anadverbialcl
auseisatypeofdependentcl
aus
ethat
act
sasanadver bi
nthesentence.Anadverbi
alcl
aus
ewi l
lal
wayscontai
nasubj
ect
andaver b.However,i
tcannots t
andal oneasacompletet
hought
.Adver
bcl
aus
es
areofmanykindsandmaybecl assi
fi
edasAdver bCl
aus
esof:
-
1.
Time2. Pl
ace.
3.Purpose.4.
Caus e.
5.Condit
ion.
6.Resul
t.
7.Compari
son.8.Supposi
tionorConcessi
on

Whet heryoul ikei tornot ,youhavet ogot obednow.

Shel ikest her edcarmor et hanherhus banddoes .
I
fyoupayyourbi l
ls,youwi llhaveagoodcr editscore.
Unles syour unf ast,youwi llmi sst hebus .
Sot hats hewoul dhaveat anf orhervacat i
on, shewentt oat annings alon.
Johnkepthi ss chedul eopen, i
ncas eofemer gencies.
Becaus ehel ovedher , hedi dn’ tbel ieves hehadanaf fair
.
Oncet heys awt hecarcomi ng, thebi rdsfl
ewawayf rom t hes treet.
Althoughs hehasabus i
nes sdegr ee, sheiswor kingasar etailclerk.
1.Adver bCl aus esoft ime
Adver bCl aus esoft i
mear ei ntroducedbyt heSubor dinatingConj uncti
onswhenever ,
whi l
e, after, bef ore,s i
nce, as , etc.
Whenyouhavef i
nishedyourwor kyoumaygohome.
Iwilldoi twhenI thi
nkf i
t.
2.Adver bCl aus esofPl ace
Adver bClaus esofPl acear ei nt r
oducedbyt heSubor dinat i
ngConj unctionswher e
andwher eas ,
Ihaveputi twher eI canf indi tagai n.
Theycans taywher et heyar e.
3.Adver bCl aus esofPur pos e
Adver bclaus esofpur pos ear eintr oducedbyt hes ubor di
nat eingconj unctionsso
that, i
nor dert hatandl es t. (I
nor dert hatandl estar eus edi naf ormal s
t yl
e.)
Iwillgiveyouamaps ot hatyoucanf i
ndtheway.
Weeats ot hatwemayl i
ve.
4.Adver bCl aus esofCaus eorReas on
Adver bClaus esofCaus eorReas onar eintr
oducedbyt heSubor di
nati
ng
conjunct ions
becaus e,as , si
nce, t
hat .
Becaus eI li
keyou, I
s hall hel pyou.
Ididi tbecaus eI want edt o.
5.Adver bCl aus esofCondi tion
Adver bClaus esofCondi tionar ei nt roducedbyt heSubor dinatingConj unct i
onsif
whet her ,unl es s.
I
fI l
ikei t,Ishal l buyi t.Comei fyouwi s hto.
I
fitrai nswes hal l
s t
ayal home.
6.Adver bCl aus esofRes ul torCons equence
Adver bClaus esofRes ultorCons equencear eintroducedbyt heSubor dinating
Conj unct i
ont hat .
Frequent lys oors uchpr ecedesi tint hePr i
ncipal Cl
aus e.
Theyf oughts obr avel yt hatt heenemi eswer edr i
venof f./Sobr avelydidt heyfight
that
theenemywer edr i
venof f.(Literar y),
Heissuchagoodmant hatal lres pecthim.
AdverbCl aus esofCompar is
on
AdverbCl ausesofCompar i
sonar eoft wokinds:-
(i
)Adver bClaus esofCompar i
sonofDegr ee.
(i
i
)Adver bCl aus esofCompar i
s onofManner .
AdverbCl ausesofCompar i
sonofDegr eear ei
ntr
oducedbyt heSubor
dinat
ing
Conjunctionthan, orbyt heRel at i
veAdver bas;
Heisoldert hanhel ooks.
Heisass tupidashei sl
azy.
Heisnots ocleverasyout hink.
8.AdverbCl aus esofSuppos i
tion
AdverbCl ausesofSuppos iti
onar eintroducedbyt heSubor
dinat
ing
Conjunctionst hough, al
though, evenif.
ThoughI am poorI am hones t
.
EvenifitrainsI shal
l come.

Exampl
eofAdver
bial
Claus
e:

Youwi
l
lcont
inuedr
ivi
ngnor
thunt
ilyous
eeas
tops
ign.

Af
tert
hemovi
eended,
weat
eicecr
eam.

Shevi
si
tshergr
andf
atherwhenevers
hei
sint
own

Punct
uat
ionMar
ks

Punctuat
ionist
hes yst
em ofs
ignsorsymbolsgi
vent
oar
eadert
oshow how a
sent
enceiscons
truct
edandhowitshoul
dberead.

Sent
encesar ethe buil
ding bl
ocksus ed t
o constr
uctwr i
tt
en accounts.Theyare
complet
es tat
ements.Punctuat
ion s
howshow t hes ent
ences hould beread and
makesthemeani ngclear.
Everysentenceshouldincl
udeatl eas
tacapi tall
ett
erat
thest
art,andafullst
op,exclamati
onmar korquesti
onmar katt heend.Thisbasi
c
s
yst
em i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hes
ent
encei
scompl
ete.

TheEngl
i
shl
anguagehasmanypunct
uat
ionmar
ks,

• Hereare14commonpunct uati
onmarksi
nEngl
i
sh.
• TheFul
l St
op( .
)
• TheQues t
ionMark(?)
• Quotat
ionMar ks/
SpeechMarks(“”
)
• TheApos t
rophe(‘
)

• TheComma( ,)
• TheHyphen( -
)
• Thedas h( endas h(
–)em das
h(—)
)
• TheExcl amat i
onMark(!
)
• TheCol on( :
)
• TheSemi colon(;
)
• Parenthes es()
• Brackets[ ]
• El
li
psis(…)
• TheSlas h( /

Punct
uat
ionMar
kswi
thRul
es&Exampl
es:

Ful
lSt
op(
.)

•Af
ull
stop,
als
oknownas
iaper
iod(
.)i
nAmer
icanEngl
i
sh,
isoneoft
hemos
t

•Anal
ysi
soft
ext
sindi
cat
ethatappr
oxi
mat
elyhal
fofal
lpunct
uat
ionmar
ksus
ed

Aful
lst
op,al
soknownasaper
iod(.
)inAmeri
canEngl
is
h,isoneoft
hemos
t
commonl
yusedpunct
uat
ionmarksi
ntheEngl
ishl
anguage.

Anal
ysi
softextsi
ndi
cat
ethatappr
oxi
mat
elyhal
fofal
lpunct
uat
ionmar
ksus
ed
ar
efull
stops.

Thepunct
uat
ionr
ules
:

Mostl
yusedatt
heendofadecl
arat
ives
ent
ence,
oras
tat
ementt
hati
s
cons
ider
edtobecompl
ete.

Thi
spunct
uat
ionmar
kisal
sous
edf
oll
owi
nganabbr
evi
ati
onEx.
Dr.
,Mr
..
 Afulls
topcanalsobes
hownatt
heendofagr
oupofwor
dst
hatdon’
tfor
ma
t
ypicalsent
ence.

Thef
ull
stopexampl
es:

Leavemeal
one.

Iwi
l
lgot
oLahor
e,t
omor
row.

Ques
tionMar
k(?)

• Weus eaquestionmar k(?)afterani nter

rogat
ivesent
enceinEngl
i
sh.
• Examples
:
• Whatisyourname?
• Whereareyouf rom?
• Quotat
ionMarks /
SpeechMar ks(“”)
• Weus equotat
ionmar ks( “”)fordirectquotat
ionsi
nEngli
sh.
• Examples
:
• Sheaskedme,‘’whatar eyoudoi ng”?

Apos
trophe(
‘)

• •Anapos t
rophe( ‘
)isus
edtoshowt hatcer
tai
nlet
ter
shavebeenomi tt
ed
fr
om awor d.
• Thepunctuati
ons ymbolcanalsobeusedtoshowtheposses
sivefor
m ofa
noun,i
nadditiontoindi
cati
ngtheplur
alfor
m ofl
owercas
elett
ers.
• Thepunctuati
onr ul
es:
• Useofanapos t
ropheincontr
acti
ons
• Heis=He’s
• Iam =I’
m
• Donot=Don’ t
• Theyhave=They’ ve
• I
tis=It’
s
• Iwould=I’
d
• Letus=Let’s

Us
eofapos
trophet
oindi
cat
epos
ses
sion

• Theapost
ropheexampl es:
• Hejoi
nedPlayers
’clubin2016.
• Hina’
shai
rwascur ly.
• Wehaveputt ogetherananthologyofchi
l
dren’
spoet
ry.

Comma(
,)
•Acomma( ,)i
susedtoshowt hedi
ff
erencebetweent
wosepar
ateideasor
elementswi
thi
nas ent
ence.Commashaveot herus
esaswel
l
,astheycanbeus
edt
o
separat
enumbers
, andwrit
edates.

•Thecommar
ulesandexampl
es:

•Addacommawhent
wos
epar
ates
ent
encesar
ecombi
ned•Exampl
e:

•Wepur
chas
eds
omechees
e,andwepur
chas
eds
omef
rui
t.

•Usecommasbetweenwor
dsi
nas
eri
es.
Not
icet
hatacommadoesnotf
oll
owt
he
l
astwordi
ntheser
ies
.

•Exampl
e:

•Hewast
all
,dar
k,andhands
ome.

•Us
eacommat
osepar
ateani
ntr
oduct
oryel
ementf
rom t
her
estoft
hes
ent
ence.

•Exampl
e:

•Ast
hedaycametoanend,t
hefir
efi
ght
ersputoutt
hel
asts
par
k.•Us
ethecomma
t
osetof
fthewor
ds“yes
”and“no”
.

•Exampl
e:

•No,
thankyou.

•Us
eacommat
osetof
fat
agques
tionf
rom t
her
estoft
hes
ent
ence.
•Exampl
e:

• Sheisyoursi
ster,i
sn’tshe?Us eacommat oi
ndicatedi
rectaddr
ess
.
• Example:
• I
sthatyou,Mar y?
• Addacommawhenapar ti
cipl
ephrasecl
aus eisused.
• Example:
• Walkingsl
owly,Icoulds eethebeauti
ful
flowers.
• Useacommat os eparatepar t
soft
hedat e.
• Example:
• Tuesday,May2, 2016,waswhenIgr aduat ed.

Hyphen(
-)
 • Ahyphen( –)isapunct uati
onmar kwitht
hreemainus es
.
• Manypeopl econfus ethi
spunctuati
onmar kwiththedash,
butt
hetwoare
quit
edi fferent.
• Thehyphencanbeus edincompoundwor ds
,toli
nkwordstopr
efi
xes
,and
als
oasawayt oshowwor dbreaks.
• Thehyphenpunct uati
onrulesandexamples:
• Useahyphent ojointwoormor ewor dst
ogetherint
oacompoundterm.
• Donots epar atethewor dswithspaces.
• Exampl es :
• Myei ght-year -ol
dboyl ovesreadi
ng.
• Iworkpar t-
time.
• Self
-expres sion

Das
h

Thedas
hisus
edt
osepar
atewor
dsi
ntos
tat
ement
s.

Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofdas
hes
,theendas
h(–
),andt
heem das
h(—)
.

• Theendashshowsrangeorconnecti
ons.Ont heotherhand,t
heem dashis
usedi
nplaceswher
eacommacoul dals
obeus ed.
• Thedashcanals
obeus edt
omar koffwor dsorstat
ementsthatarenot
i
mportantt
othemeaningofthestat
ement .
• Thedashcanals
obeus edi
nplaceswher eacommawoul dbet ypi
cal
l
yused.

Endas
h(–
),

• Sli
ghtlywiderthanahyphen, t
heendas hisasymbol(–
),t
hatisusedi
n
writi
ngorpr i
ntingtoi
ndi
catear angeorconnect
ions
.
• Thiscouldbeinnumber s,s
uchaspage
• number s(55–102)ort
ime(1:
00–2:30)
,ormonths,
suchasJuly–
October
.
• 1880– 1945
• Pri
nceton–NewYor kt
rai
ns

Em das
h(—)

• Twiceaslongastheendas h,
theem dash(—) .
canbeus edinplaceofa
comma, parent
hesi
s,orcol
ontoenhancereadabil
i
tyoremphasizethe
conclus
ionofasentence.
• Example:
• Shegavehim heranswer—No!
• Wecoul dn’
tbel
ievewhatourparent
shadleftusinthei
rwil
l—onemi l
li
on
doll
ars!
Excl
amat
ionMar
k(!
)

•Anexcl
amat
ionmar
kisus
edt
oshowemphas
is.

•I
tcanbeus
edi
nthemi
ddl
eofas
ent
enceoratt
heendofas
ent
ence.

•Whenusedatt
heendofas
ent
ence,
ital
sot
akesont
her
oleofaf
ull
stopora
per
iod.

•Weof
tenus
eanexcl
amat
ionmar
k(!
)tos
hows
trongemot
ionorgi
veacommand.

•Exampl
es:•St
op!

•Yeah!

•Si
tdown!

•Whatal
ovel
yvi
ewyouhaveher
e!•Us
edf
ori
nter
ject
ionwor
ds:

•Al
as!
,Hur
rah!

Col
on(
:)

• •Acolon( :
)isafairl
ycommonpunct uati
onmar kwithavar i
ednumberofus es.
• I
tcanbeus edtointroduceaquot at
ion,anexample,aseries,
orevenan
expl
anat i
on.
• Secondly,i
tcanbeus edtos eparatetwoindependentclauses.
• Fi
nall
y,acol oncanbeus edtos howemphas is.
• Examples:
• Youhavet wochoi ces:fi
nishthewor ktodayorlosethecontract
.
• That’
sbecaus ewehaveonegoal :foryoutoconsideryourwebs i
teas uccess.
• Thedietincl
udesfourmai ntypesoffood:cereal
s,l
eafyvegetables,
fruit
s,and
fi
sh.

Semi
col
on(
;)

• As emi colon( ;
)isusedtos epar atetwoindependentclaus eswhil
est
il
l
demons tr
atingthataclos erelati
onshipexi
stsbetweent hem.
• Thes emi colondoesabet terjobofs howi
ngt heconnect i
onbetweent wo
statement sthanaf ulls
topwoul d.
• Exampl es:
• Mydaught erisat eacher;mys onisadoctor.
• Ther ear eeightmember sint heteam:t wofrom China,Japan;thr
eefrom
France, Spain;t
wof rom Brazil;andonef r
om India.
• Mys i
steral wayss l
eptwi t
ht hel i
ghton;shewasaf raidoft hedar
k.
Par
ent
hes
es()

• Parenthes i
s,((
))ar equotationmarksthats howadditi
onal t
houghtsabouta
stat
ement .
• I
nmanys cenarios,t
heycanber eplacedbycommaswi thoutanychangesto
themeani ngoft hesentence.
• Weal soof tenus eparenthesest
os etofflessimpor
tantdetail
s.
• Exampl e:
• Thetwobr others(AliandSleem)wer elearninghowtopl ayguit
ar.
• Katri
na( ahur r
icane)hadadevas tatingef f
ectonthousandsofpeople.

Br
acket
s[]

• Wet ypicall
yus esquarebracketswhenwewantt omodif
yanotherper
son'
s
words.
• Here,wewantt omakeitclearthatthemodifi
cati
onhasbeenmadebyus ,
notbyt heor i
ginalwri
ter
.Forexampl e:
• toaddcl ari
fi
cation:
• Thewi tnesssai
d:"
He[ thepoli
ceman]hitme."
• toaddi nformation:
• Thet wot eamsinthefinal
soft hef
ir
stFI
FAFootbal
lWorl
dCupwer e
bothfrom SouthAmer i
ca[ Ur
uguayandAr genti
na]
.
• toaddmi ss
ingwor ds:
• Itis[a]goodques ti
on.

El
l
ips
is(
…)

• Anel l
ipsi
sisusuall
yrepresentedbythreedot s(
…) ,alt
houghi tcanals
obe
representedbyt hr
eeas t
eris
ks(***)
.
• Thispunct uati
ons ymbolisusedtoshowt hattherehasbeenanomi s
sionof
somel ett
ersorwor ds.
• Inmanycas es,ell
i
psesareus edtocutstatements horttoavoidunnecessar
y
orirr
elevantwor dsthathavenoi mpactont hemeani ngoft hestat
ement
beingmade.
• Weof tenus eell
ipsi
stoshowt hatpart
sofs entencesar elef
tout.
• Exampl es:
• Tobecont i
nued…
• You’ll
neverbelievewhatIs aw…
Sl
ashOrObl
i
que(
/)

• As l
ash,whichi
sal soknownasaf or
wardsl
ash,
avir
gule,orevenanobli
que
dash,hasanumberofus es.
• Thes l
ashcanbeus edtos eparateli
nesi
nasongorpoem whent heyar
e
writ
teninacont i
nuousl i
ne.
• Thes l
ash(/
)isals
ous edinplaceofthewordorthes
lashcanalsobeusedto
showt wocontradictorynotions.

Thes
las
hpunct
uat
ionr
ulesandexampl
es:

• Uses l
ashest os eparat epar
tsofi
nter
net(web)addr
ess
esandf
il
enamesf
or
somecomput erprogr ams.
• htt
p://
www. exampl e.com/
• Uses l
ashesf orfractions
• Example:
• 1/
3=one- t
hird
• Useas lashtos epar atetheday,month,
andyearindate.
• Examples :
• 1/
2/2021
• w/o=wi t
hout

Us
eas
las
htos
howt
hewor
d“per
”inmeas
urement
s.

• Exampl e:
• 80mi l
es /hour=80mi l
esperhour
• Us eas l
as ht oseparat
el i
nesofpoet ryorrhymesinr
egul
art
ext
.
• Exampl e:
• Twi nkle,twi nkl
e,li
tt
lestar,/HowI wonderwhatyouare.
/Upabovet
hewor
ld
sohi gh, /Likeadi amondi nthes ky.
• Us eas l
as ht oshowalternativesinas ent
ence.
• Exampl e:
• Pleas epr essyourbr owser’sRefresh/
Reloadbutt
on.

Us
eofCapi
tal
Let
ter
s

.
Useacapi
tal
let
terf
ort
heper
sonal
pronoun'
I
':

• WhatcanI
say?

Us
eacapi
tal
let
tert
obegi
nas
ent
enceort
obegi
nspeech:

• Themanarr
ived.
Hes atdown.
• Suddenl
yMaryasked,"
Doyouloveme?"
Us
ecapi
tal
let
ter
sformanyabbr
evi
ati
onsandacr
onyms
:

• PST(
Pakist
anSt
andar
dTime)
• N.A.
T.O.
orNATOorNato(
NorthAt
lant
icTr
eat
yOr
gani
zat
ion)

Us
eacapi
tal
let
terf
ordaysoft
heweek,
mont
hsoft
heyear
,hol
i
days
:

• Monday, Tues
day
• January,Febr
uary
• Chri
stmas
• Quid-e-Azam Day

Useacapital
let
terf
orcount
ri
es,
languages&nat
ional
i
ties
,rel
i
gions(
all
pr
opernouns)
:

• China,France
• Japanes e,Engli
sh
• Christi
anit
y,Buddhism, I
sl
am
• 6.Us eacapi t
allet
terforpeopl
e'
snamesandt
it
les
:
• Anthony, Ram, Wil
li
am Shakespear
e
• ProfessorJones,Dr.Smith
• KingHenr yVII
I

Useacapi
tal
lett
erf
ort
rade-
mar
ksandnamesofcompani
esandot
her
or
gani
zati
ons:

• PepsiCola,
Wal kman
• Micr
osoftCorporat
ion,Toyot
a
• theUnitedNati
ons,theRedCr os
s

Us
eacapi
tal
let
terf
orpl
acesandmonument
s:

• London, Paris
,theLat i
nQuarter
• theEiffelTower ,
StPaul '
sCat
hedral
• Buckingham Pal ace,theWhit
eHous e
• OxfordSt reet
,FifthAvenue
• Jupit
er ,Mars,Sir
ius
• Asia,theMi ddleEast,theNor
thPole

Us
eacapi
tal
let
terf
ornamesofvehi
cl
esl
i
kes
hips
,tr
ainsands
pacecr
aft
:

• theTi
tanic
• theOrientExpres
s,t
heFlyi
ngScot
sman
• Chall
enger2, t
heEnter
pri
se
Us
eacapi
tal
let
terf
orpl
acesandmonument
s:

• London, Paris
,theLat i
nQuarter
• theEiffelTower ,
StPaul '
sCat
hedral
• Buckingham Pal ace,theWhit
eHous e
• OxfordSt reet
,FifthAvenue
• Jupit
er ,Mars,Sir
ius
• Asia,theMi ddleEast,theNor
thPole

Us
eacapi
tal
trai
nsands
pacecr
aftl
ett
erf
ornamesofvehi
cl
esl
i
kes
hips
:

• theTi
tanic
• theOrientExpres
s,t
heFlyi
ngScot
sman
• Chall
enger2, t
heEnter
pri
se

Act
ivi
ty:

Punct
uat
ethef
oll
owi
ngpar
agr
aph:

Winstoni soneofthemostlai
d-backpeopleiknow heistal
landsli
m withbl
ackhair
andheal wayswearsat -
shir
tandblackjeanshisjeanshaveholesinthem andhis
baseballbootsarescr
uffytooheus ual
lysit
satt hebackoftheclassandheof t
en
seemst obeas l
eephoweverwhent heexam r es
ultsar
egivenouthealwaysgetsan
"A"idon'tthi
nkhesaslazyasheappearstobe

Di
rect&I
ndi
rectSpeech

Whati
sDi
rect&I
ndi
rectSpeech?

• Dir
ects peech–repor
ti
ngt hemes s
ageoft hespeakerintheexactwordsas
spokenbyhi m.
• Dir
ects peechexampl
e:Mar i
asai
d,‘Iam busynow’.
• I
ndirectspeech:r
epor
ti
ngt hemessageoft hespeakeri
nourownwor ds
• I
ndirectspeechexample:Mari
asai
dt hatshewasbus ythen.

I
dent
if
yRepor
tedSpeechandRepor
tedSpeech

• Adirectspeechs entenceconsi
stoftwoparts.
• Thepar tthati
sinsidethequotati
onmar ks
,iscall
edreport
eds peech.
• Theotheronet hati soutofquot
edmar ks,i
scall
edreporti
ngspeech.
• Lookatt heexampl esbelow:
• Dir
ectSpeechSent ence: Shes ai
d,"I
teachdirectandindi
rectspeech"
• Reporti
ngSpeech: Shesai
d,
 • Repor
tedSpeech: “
Iteachdi
rectandi
ndi
rects
peech”
.

Di
rectandSpeechPunct
uat
ionI
ndi
rectRul
es

• Fol
lowi
ngpunctuat
ionr
ulesi
nrepor
teds
peechar
eappl
i
ed.
• ChangeinTens
es

1
.Ift
heverboftherepor
ti
ngspeechi
sinpr
esentorf
utur
etens
e,t
het
ens
eoft
he
r
eporteds
peechdoesnotchange.

2.Ift
heverbofther
epor
ti
ngs peechi
sinpas
ttens
e,t
hever
bsoft
her
epor
ted
speechar
echangedt
opasttense.

3.
Ift
her
epor
teds
peechexpr
ess
esauni
ver
sal
trut
h,t
het
ens
ewi
l
lnotchange.

Di
rectSpeech I
ndi
rects
peech

Pr
esentSi
mpl
e Pas
tSi
mpl
e

Pr
esentCont
inuous Pas
tCont
inuous

Pr
esentPer
fect Pas
tPer
fect

Pr
esentPer
fectCont
inuous Pas
tPer
fectCont
inuous

Pas
tSi
mpl
e Pas
tPer
fect

Pas
tCont
inuous Pas
tPer
fectCont
inuous

Pas
tPer
fect Pas
tPer
fect

Pas
tPer
fectCont
inuous Pas
tPer
fectCont
inuous

Fut
ureTens
eswi
l
l Woul
d
• Inver
tedcommaareexcluded
• Questi
onmarki
sconvert
edintof
ull
stop
• Excl
amati
onmarkissi
l
enced
• Comma, i
nsomecases,i
sused

Us
eofConj
unct
ion“
that
”

Conj
unct
ion“
that
”ispl
acedbet
weenr
epor
tedandr
epor
ti
ngs
peech,

Di
rectSpeech I
ndi
rectSpeech Punct
uat
ionomi
tt
ed

Alisai
d,"Iam qui
tegood Alis
aidthathewasqui
te Quot
ati
onmar
ks
here" goodthere.

He sai
d,"How ol
d your He asked how ol
d my Ques
tionmar
k
br
otheri
s? br
otherwas.

Shesai
d,"
Hur
rah!s
ucha She excl
aimed wi
thj oy Si
gnofExcl
amat
ion
cool
day thati
twasacoolday.

• however,i
nques ti
ons entences,i
tisrepl
acedwi th‘
asked,
inqui
red,
etc,
• Hesaid,
“I am il
l.
”
• Hetol
dthathewasi l
l.
• Hesaystot hem,"Youhavecompl etedyourjob."
• Hetel
lsthem thattheyhavecompl etedthei
rjob.
• Shesays,"
Shei sintenthclass.
"
• Shesaysthatshei sintenthclass
.

Rul
esf
orChangei
nTi
meandAdver
binI
ndi
rectSpeech

• Now--t hen
• Here--there
• Ago--bef or
e
• Thus--so
• Today--thatday
• Tomorrow- -thenextday

Thi
s--t
hat

• Yes
ter
day-
-thedaybef
ore
 • These--t
hose
• Hit
her-
-thit
her
• Come--go
• Hence--thence
• Nextweek/month-
-fol
l
owi
ngweek/
mont
h

Rul
e1–Di
rectToI
ndi
rectSpeechConver
sion–Repor
ti
ngVer
b

• Whentherepor
ti
ngver
bofdir
ectspeechi
sinpas
ttensethenallt
hepres
ent
t
ensesar
echangedt
othecor
respondi
ngpastt
ens
einindi
rects
peech.

Si
mpl
ePr
esentChangest
oSi
mpl
ePas
t

• Di
rect:Shesai
d,“
Iam unwell
”.
• I
ndir
ect:Shesai
dthatshewasunwell
.
• Di
rect:Shesai
d,‘
Iam happy’
.
• I
ndir
ect:Shesai
dthatshewashappy.

I
nindi
rects
peech,tensesdonotchangeift
hewor
dsus
edwi
thi
nthequot
es(
‘’
)
t
alkofahabit
ualacti
onoruniver
saltr
uth.

• Direct:Hesaid,‘Wecannotl i
vewi thoutair’
.
• I
ndi r
ect:Hesai dthatwecannotl i
vewi t
houtair
.
• Thet ensesofdi r
ects peechdonotchangei ft
herepor
ti
ngver
bisi
nthef
utur
e
tenseorpr es
entt ens e.
• Directtoindi
rects peechexampl e:
• Direct:Shesays /
wi l
lsay,‘
Iam going’
• I
ndi r
ect:Shes ays/wil
l s
aythatshei sgoing.

Rul
e2–Di
rectSpeecht
oIndi
rectSpeechconver
sion–Pr
esentTens
e

Pr
esentPer
fectChangest
oPas
tPer
fect
.

• Di
rect:“I
havebeent oBos ton”,shet ol
dme.
• I
ndir
ect:Shetoldmet hats hehadbeent oBos ton.
• Di
rect:Hesai
d, “
Shehasf inishedherhomewor k“.
• I
ndir
ect:Hesaidthatshehadf ini
shedherhomewor k
• Pr
esentContinuousChangest oPas tContinuous
• Di
rect:“I
am playi
ngthegui t
ar”,sheexplained.
• I
ndir
ect:Sheexplai
nedt hats hewaspl ayingtheguitar.

Rul
e3–Di rectSpeecht
oIndi
rectSpeechconver
sion–Pas
tTens
e&
Fut
ureTens
e

Si
mpl
ePas
tChangest
oPas
tPer
fect
 • Dir
ecttoindi
rects peechexampl e:
• Dir
ect:Shesaid,“Hear r
ivedonSunday. ”
• I
ndirect
:Shesai dthatHe hadar rivedonSunday.
• PastConti
nuousChangest oPas tPer f
ectConti
nuous
• Dir
ecttoindi
rects peechexampl e
• Dir
ect:Theytoldme, “Wewer eplayingbasketbal
l
”.
• I
ndirect
:Theyt ol
dmet hattheyhadbeenpl ayi
ngbasket
bal
l
.

Fut
ureChangest
oPas
tCondi
ti
onal

• Dir
ect:Shesaid,“
I wil
lbeinScot
landtomorrow.”
• I
ndirect
:Shes ai
dt hatshewouldbeinScotlandthenextday.
• FutureCont
inuousChangest oConditi
onalConti
nuous
• Dir
ect:Hesaid,“I
’
llbedisposi
ngoftheoldcomput ernextTues
day.
”
• I
ndirect
:Hes aidthathewoul dbedisposi
ngoftheol dcomputert
hef
oll
owi
ng
Tuesday.

Rule4–Di r
ectSpeecht
oIndi
rectSpeechConver
sion–I
nter
rogat
ive
Sentences

• Basicr ulesofdi rectandindir

ects peechf orint err
ogatives entences:
• I
nterrogat ivesent encesareoft wot ypes:
• I
nterrogat ivewi thauxili
ari
es(helpi ngver bs)att hebegi nning.
• I
nterrogat iveswi thwho, wher e,what ,when, howet c.
,i.
e. whques ti
ons.
• Punctuat i
onmar ks(comma, inver tedcomma, questi
onmar ks)areremoved.
• Conjunct ion“that ”isomitt
ed.
• Interrogat i
vef ormi schangedi ntoas ser
tivef orm ofsent ence.
• ‘
Said’ i
schangedi ntoaskedori nqui red.
• Useof‘ If
’or‘Whet her’i
smadef ort hei nterrogat i
ves entencest hatst
ar twi
th
auxil
iar i
es.
• Repor ti
ng ver bs s uch as ‘said/s aidt o’changes t o enqui r
ed,as ked,or
demanded.
• Dir
ect :Shes aid, ‘Wil
lyoucomef ort hepar ty’
?
• I
ndirect :Sheas kedwhet herwewoul dcomef orthepar ty.
• Hes aidt ome, "Wi l
lyoubeher et omor row?"
• Heas kedmewhet herIwouldbet her ethenextday.
• Hes aidt ome, "Haveyoubeent oTur key?"
• Heas kedmei fI hadbeent oTur key.

Di
rectt
oindi
rects
peechexampl
e

• Noconj uncti
onisused,
ifasentenceindi
rectspeechbegi
nswithawh
questi
ons .
• (what/where/when)asthe“questi
on-wor
d”its
elfactsasaj
oini
ngcl
aus
e.
• Dir
ect:“Wher edoyouli
ve?”askedtheboy.
• I
ndirect:TheboyenquiredwhereI l
i
ved.
 • Di
rect:Hesai
dtome,‘
Whatareyouweari
ng’
?
• I
ndir
ect:HeaskedmewhatI
waswearing.

Rul
e 5 –Di
rectSpeech t
oIndi
rectSpeech Conver
sion –Changesi
n
Modal
s

• Whilechangi ng di rectspeech t oindi

rects peech,themodalsused i
nthe
sentenceschangel ike:
• Canbecomescoul d
• Maybecomesmi ght
• Mustbecomeshadt o/woul dhavet o
• Checkt heexampl es :
• Dir
ect:Shes aid,‘Shecancook’ .
• I
ndirect:Shesaidt hats hecould cook.
• Dir
ect:Shes ai
d, ‘
Imaybuyadr ess’
.
• I
ndirect:Shesaidt hats hemi ghtbuyadr ess
.
• Dir
ect:Ranas aid,‘Imus tcompl etetheassi
gnment ’
.
• I
ndirect:Ranas ai
dt hathehadt ocompletetheas s
ignment.
• Therear emodal sthatdonotchange–Coul d, Would,Shoul
d,Mi
ght
,Oughtt
o
• Dir
ect:Shes ai
d, ‘
Is houldcleant hehouse’
• I
ndirect:Shesaidt hats heshouldcleanthehous e.

Rul
e6–Di
rectSpeecht
oIndi
rectSpeechConver
sion–Pr
onoun

• Thef i
rstpers
oni ndi r
ectspeechchangesaspert hesubj
ectofthespeech.
• Dir
ects peecht oindi r
ects peechexampl es-
• Dir
ect :Hesaid,“I am inclas sTwel f
th.
”
• I
ndirect:Hesai dt hathewasi nclassTwel
fth.
• Thes econdper sonofdi r
ects peechchangesaspert heobjectofreport
ing
speech.
• Dir
ect :Shesayst ot hem, “Youhavedoneyourwor k.
”
• I
ndirect:Shetellst hem thatt heyhavedonet hei
rwork.
• Thet hir
dpers onofdi rects peechdoes n’
tchange.
• Dir
ects peecht oindi r
ects peechexampl es–
• Dir
ect :Hesays ,“Shes peakswel l
.”
• I
ndirect:Hesayst hats hes peakswel l
.

Rul
e 7 – Di
rectSpeech t
oIndi
rectSpeech Conver
sion – Reques
t,
Command,Wish,

• I
ndir
ectSpeechi ssupport
edbysomever bsli
kerequest
ed,order
ed,suggested
andadvi sed.
• Forbid-f
or badeisusedfornegat
ivesent
ences.
• Therefore,theimperati
vemoodint hedi
rectspeechchangesint
otheInfi
nit
ive
i
nindirects peech.
 • Dir
ect:Shes ai
dtoher‘ Pl
easecompl eteit
’.
• I
ndirect:Sher eques tedhertocompl eteit.
• Dir
ect:Hami dsaidt oRahat,‘Si
tdown’ .
• I
ndirect:Hami dor dered Rahatt ositdown.
• I
nExcl amat orysent encesthatexpressgrief,
sorr
ow, happi
nes
s,appl
aud,
• Interj
ectionsarer emovedandt hes entenceischangedtoanassert
ive
sentence.
• Dir
ect:Shes ai
d,‘Alas !Hei
snomor e’.
• I
ndirect:Sheexclai meds adlythathewasnomor e.

Act
ivi
ty

• Hes ays,“
Iam il
l
.”
• Shes ays,
“Shesangas ong.”
• Yous ay,“
Ishall
visitLondon.”
• Theysaid,Theyt
“ akeexer ci
seeveryday.
”
• Theys ai
d,“Theyaret akingexerci
seever
yday.
”
• Theys ai
d,“They havet akenexerci
se.
”

• Theys
aid,
“Theyhavebeent
aki
ngexer
cis
esi
ncemor
ning.
”

• Theys
aid,Theyt
“ ookexerci
se.
”
• Theys
aid,Theywer
“ etakingexercis
e.”
• Theys
aid,Theyhadt
“ akenexer ci
se.
”
• Theysaid,Theywi
“ l
ltakeexercis
e.”

I
nter
rogat
iveSent
enceExer
cis
es–1

• Alisaidt oMohsin,“Areyougoi nghomet oday?”

• Myf riendsaidtome, “Wi l
lyounothelpme?”
• Hes aidt ohim,“Di
dyoueatmangoes ?”
• Simas aidt
oMeena, “
Coul dyous ol
vetheques tionyes ter
day?”
• Hafizs aidtoHanif
,”Doyour eall
ywantt oleavet hisbook?”
• Hes aidt ohim,“Doyour eall
ywantt oleavet hi
sci ty?”
• “Does n’theli
ketohelpmei nthismatternow?”as kedmyf r
iend.
• Theyi nquir
ed, “
Haven’tyouhel pedhim outoft heway?”
• “Willyouhavedi nnerwi thmeornot ?”askedShahi d.
• “Didnoneofyoucompl etethepr oj
ect
?”thet eacherwonder ed.
• Thet eachers ai
d,”St
udent s,i
sthereanymor eques t
iontoas ki
nthi
schapt
er?”
• “Mot her,won’tIgotos chooltoday?”sai
dAl i
.

Ans
wer
s

• Al
ias
kedMohs ini
fhewasgoinghomethatday.
• Myfr
iendaskedmeifIwoul
dnothelphi
m.
• Heaskedhi
mi fhehadeat
enmangoes.
 • Si
maas kedMeenai fshecouldsol
vet hequesti
ont heprevi
ousday.
• Hafi
zas kedHani fi
fher eall
ywantedt oleavethatbook.
• Heas kedhi mifhereallywantedtoleavet hatci
ty.
• Myf r
iendas kedifhelikedtohelphimi nthatmat t
erthen.
• Theyinqui r
edifIhadn’thelpedhim outoftheway.
• Shahidas kedwhet herIwouldhavedi nnerwithhim ornot.
• Theteacherwonder edifnoneofushadcompl etedtheproject
.
• Theteacheras kedt hestudentsi
ftherewass omemor equesti
ont
oaski
nthat
chapter.
• Ali
askedhi smot herifhewouldnotgot oschoolthatday.

Di
rectandI
ndi
rectSpeechI
mper
ati
veSent
encesExer
cis
es–1

• Myfriends aid,“Woul dyoul iket ohavecof feewithme?”

• Thetravellersaid, “Canyoupl easetel
l met hewayt othebuss tati
on?”
• “Bepunct ual,
”myt eachers aid, “
otherwis eyouwi llbepunis hed.
”
• Shesaidt ohert eacher ,“
Pleas eexplaint hispoem t ome.”
• Thesaints aidtot hepupils,“Bequi etandl i
s t
entomecar efull
y.”
• “Comequi ckly,”hes houted, andhel pmeasI am i
ndanger .”
• Theof f
icersai dt ohisclerk,“ Readt helet t
ercar eful
lyl
esti tshouldhaves
ome
mist
ake. ”
• Theteachers aid, “wil
lyoupl eas ebehavel i
keagoods tudent ?”
• Mymot hersaid, “Donotl aughatt hel
ameman. ”
• Hesaidt ohiss er vant,“Getoutanddon’ tletmes eeyourf aceagai n.
”
• “I
fyouwants ucces s,don’tgetl azy,”saidhe.
• Thedoct orsaid, “Stops moki ngnowasi thasgotdanger ousf oryou.”

Ans
wer
s

• Myfri
endr eques tedmet ohavecof feewi t
hhi m.
• Thetravellerreques tedt ot ell
himt hewayt ot hebuss tat
ion.
• Myteacheror der edt obepunct ualot herwiseI wouldbepuni shed.
• Shereques tedhert eachert oexplaint hatpoem t oher.
• Thesaintadvi sedt hepupi lst obequi etandlistentohim careful
ly.
• Hereques tedt ogoqui cklyandhel phi m ashewasi ndanger .
• Theof f
iceror der edhi scler kt oreadt helet t
ercar ef
ull
yles titshoul
dhave
somemi s t
ake.
• Theteacherr eques tedt obehavel ikeagoods tudent.
• Mymot herf orbademet ol aughatt helameman.OrMymot herorderednot
tol
aughatt hel ameman.
• Heorder edhiss er vantt ogetoutandnott ol ethims eehisfaceagain.
• Headvis ednott obel azyi fIwants uccess.
• Thedoct oradvi sedt ostops mokingt henasithadgotdanger ousforhim.

Opt
ati
veSent
encesExer
cis
es-
1
 • Mymot hersaid,“MayGodbl essyou!
”
• Hesaidtome, “
Mayyouhaveahappyj ourney!”
• Thesaintsai
dt othewoman, “
MayGodbl essyouwit
has on!
”
• Hesaid,“Mayyous ucceedinyourlif
e,myfri
end!”
• Theoldmans houted,“Gotohel l
”
• Thestudentssaidtot hei
rteacher,“
Goodmor ni
ngMa’am!”
• Mohans aidtoAli,“
HappyEi d!”
• Thehermitsaid,“MayGodmaket hepeopleofthi
sci
tyl
i
veher ehappi
l
y!”
• Hesaid,“Mayyounevergetpeace! ”
• Thesons ai
d,“Sweetdr eams ,Mom !”

Ans
wer
s

• Mymot herwi s
hedt hatGodmi ghtbles
sme.
• Hewishedmet hatI mighthaveahappyj ourney.
• Thesaintwishedt hewoment hatGodmi ghtbl es
sherwithason.
• Hewishedhi sfr
iendt hathemi ghtsucceedinyourli
fe.
• Theoldmancur sedt hathe/Imightgot ohell.OrTheoldmancursedhi
m/me
togotohell.
• Thestudentswishedt heirt
eachergoodmor ning.
• Mohanwi shedAl ihappyEid.
• Theher mi
twi shedt hatGodmi ghtmaket hepeopl eofthatcit
yli
vether
e
happi
ly.
• Hecursedthathe/ Imightnevergetpeace.
• Thesonwi shedmom s weetdreams .

Excl
amat
orySent
encesExer
cis
es–1

• Thet eachers aid, “

Whatal azyboy! ”
• Theki ngsaid, “
Al as!Ourenemi esar etoos t
rong.”
• Myf athers ai
dt ome, “Bravo!Youhavegotver ygoodmar ks.”
• “Hurran!Ihavequal if
iedtheexam, ”s aidhe.
• Alisaid,‘
Hows mar tyouar e!
”
• “Congr at
ulations !Youhavebeens electedfort
hef i
nalmatch,
”s ai
dmyGames
teachertome.
• Theyoungmans aid,“Whataf oolI am !”
• “Whatas tupidf ell
owyouar e!”thet eacherangril
yremarked.
• “Whatahor s ear et heyl osi
ngf orwantofs ki
llandspiri
tt omanagei
t!”
exclaimedAl exander ,t
heGr eat.

Ans
wer
s

• Theteacherexcl
aimedt hattheboywasver ylazy.
• Thekingexcl
aimedwi t
hs orrowthatthei
renemi esweret
oos
trong.
• Myfatherapplaudedmet hatIhadgotverygoodmar ks.
• Heexclai
medwi thjoythathehadqual if
iedt
heexam.
 • Aliexclai
medt hatIwasverysmart.
• Mygamet eachercongratul
atedmet hatIhadbeens el
ect
edf orthefi
nal
mat ch.
• Theyoungmanexcl ai
medt hathewasagr eatf
ool.
• Thet eacherexcl
aimedangril
ythatIwasaverystupi
dfel
low.
• Alexander,thegreatexcl
aimedthattheywerelosi
nggreathors
ef orwantof
skil
lands pi
ri
ttomanagei t
.

Act
ivevoi
ce/Pas
sivevoi
ce
• Whenasubjectofasentencedoesanact ion.Or
• Whenaworki sdonebythes ubj
ectofas entence. Or
• Whenasubjectshowsanact i
ontowar dsanobj ect.
• Thepol
i
cear r
estedthecrimi
nal.
Act i
vevoiceSubj ecti
sdoingt
heact
ion.
• Thej
udgereadt hecase.Act
ivevoiceSubjectoftheact i
on

Pas
sivevoi
ce

• Whent hever bispas s

ive,thesubjectundergoestheact i
ondenot edbythe
ver
br atherthandoingit.
• Thecriminalwasar r
estedbyt hepoli
ce.Passi
vevoiceSubjectisrecei
vingt
he
act
ion.
• Thecasewasr eadbythej udge.
Pas s
ivevoi
ceReceiveroftheacti
on
• Thehous eiscleanedbymymom. Passi
vevoiceReceiveroftheacti
on

Gener
alRul
es

• Changesubjecttoobj
ect
.
• Changeobjecttosubj
ect
.
• Writ
ebybef oreobj
ect
.

e3rdf
Us orm ofver
b

Tabl
eofPer
sonal
pronouns
:
Pr
esentI
ndef
ini
te(
Simpl
e)Tens
e
• Af
fi
rmat
ive
• Act
iveVoi
ce:S+V1
• Pas
sivevoi
ce:S+am/i
s/ar
e+V3
• Exampl
e:
• I
makeacake.
(Act
ive)
• Acakei
smadebyme.
(Pas
sive)
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Do/
Does+S+V1+obj
ect
• Doess
het
eachEngl
i
shats
chool
?
• Pas
sive:Be+S+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• I
sEngl
i
sht
aughtbyherats
chool
?
Negat
ive
• Act
ive:S+do/
does+not+V1+obj
ect
• Shedoesnot
/does
nt̀t
eachEngl
i
shats
chool
.
 • Pas
sive:S+be+not+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Engl
i
shi
snot
/i
snt̀t
aughtbyherats
chool
.
• Negat
ivei
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Dont̀
/
Does
nt̀+S+V1+obj
ect
• Does
nt̀s
het
eachEngl
i
shats
chool
?
• Pas
sive:Benot+S+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• I
snt̀Engl
i
sht
aughtbyherats
chool
?

WH/
Inf
ormat
ionques
tions
• Act
ive:WH+do/
does+S+V1+obj
ect
• Wher
edoess
het
eachEngl
i
shever
yday?
• Pas
sive:WH+be+S+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wher
eisEngl
i
sht
aughtbyherever
yday?

Pr
esentcont
inuous
/pr
ogr
ess
ive
Af
fi
rmat
ives
• Act
ive:S+be+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Theyar
epavi
ngt
her
oadr
ightnow.
• Pas
sive:S+be+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep
• Ther
oadi
sbei
ngpavedbyt
hem r
ightnow.
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Be+S+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Ar
etheypavi
ngt
her
oadr
ightnow?
• Pas
sive:Be+S+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• I
sther
oadbei
ngpavedbyt
hem r
ightnow?
Negat
ives
• Act
ive:S+be+not+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Theyar
enotpavi
ngt
her
oadr
ightnow?
• Pas
sive:S+be+not+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Ther
oadi
snot
/i
sn’
tbei
ngpavedbyt
hem r
ightnow.
Negat
ivei
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Benot+S+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Ar
ent̀t
heypavi
ngt
her
oadr
ightnow?
• Pas
sive:Benot+S+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• I
snt̀t
her
oadbei
ngpavedbyt
hem r
ightnow?

WH/
Inf
ormat
ionques
tions
• Act
ive:WH+be+S+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Whenar
etheypavi
ngt
her
oad?
• Pas
sive:WH+be+S+bei
ng+V3+obj
ect
• Wheni
sther
oadbei
ngpavedbyt
hem?

Pr
esentper
fectt
ens
e
Af
fi
rmat
ives
• Act
ive:S+have/
has+V3+obj
ect
• Hehaswr
it
tenapoem.
• Pas
sive:S+have/
has+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Apoem hasbeenwr
it
tenbyhi
m.
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Have/
Has+S+V3+obj
ect
• Hashewr
it
tenapoem?
• Pas
sive:Have/
Has+S+been+V3+obj
ect
• Hasapoem beenwr
it
tenbyhi
m?
Negat
ives
• Act
ive:S+have/
has+not+V3+obj
ect
• Hehasnot
/has
nt̀wr
it
tenapoem.
• Pas
sive:S+have/
has+not+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Apoem hasnot
/has
nt̀beenwr
it
tenbyhi
m.
Negat
ivei
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Have/
Hasnot+S+V3+obj
ect
 • Has
nt̀hewr
it
tenapoem?
• Pas
sive:Have/
Hasnot+S+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Has
nt̀apoem beenwr
it
tenbyhi
m?

WH/
Inf
ormat
ionques
tions
• Act
ive:WH+have/
has+S+V3+obj
ect
• Whyhavet
heyki
l
ledhi
m?
• Pas
sive:WH+have/
has+S+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Whyhashebeenki
l
ledbyt
hem?
• Note:keepi nmi ndt hatitisnotcommoni nwr it
tenEngl i
sht ochangethe
acti
ves entencesf rom presentperf
ectprogr
essive,pas tperfectprogr
essi
ve,
andfutureper fectprogressi
vetens
esintopassi
ves entencesinwr i
tt
enEngli
sh,
buttheycoul dber arelychangedinspokenEngli
s h.Inordertohelpyou,know
thei
rusei ns pokenEngl i
sh,wehavepr ovi
dedthes tr
ucturesforal
ltheabove
mentionedt enses.

Si
mpl
epas
t/pas
tindef
ini
tet
ens
e
Af
fi
rmat
ives
• Act
ive:S+V2+obj
ect
• Al
isangabeaut
if
uls
ongl
astyear
.
• Pas
sive:S+was
/wer
e+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Abeaut
if
uls
ongwass
ungbyAl
ilas
tyear
.
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Di
d+S+V1+obj
ect
• Di
dyoubuyagr
ammarbookl
astweek?
• Pas
sive:Was
/Wer
e+S+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wasagr
ammarbookboughtbyyoul
astweek?
Negat
ives
• Act
ive:S+di
d+not+V1+obj
ect
• Theydi
dnot
/di
dn’
tinvi
teust
othepar
ty.
• Pas
sive:S+was
/wer
e+not+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wewer
enoti
nvi
tedbyt
hem t
othepar
ty.
Negat
ivei
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Di
dnot+S+V1+obj
ect
• Di
dnt̀t
heyi
nvi
teyout
othepar
ty?
• Pas
sive:Was
/Wer
enot+S+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wer
ent̀youi
nvi
tedbyt
hem t
othepar
ty?

WH/
Inf
ormat
ionques
tions
• Act
ive:WH+di
d+S+V1+obj
ect
• Whendi
dyouwat
cht
hatmovi
e?
• Pas
sive:WH+was
/wer
e+s
ubj
ect+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Whenwast
hatmovi
ewat
chedbyyou?

Pas
tcont
inuous
/pr
ogr
ess
ivet
ens
e
Af
fi
rmat
ives
• Act
ive:S+be2+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Hewaspai
nti
ngt
hewal
lyes
ter
day.
• Pas
sive:S+was
/wer
e+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Thewal
lwasbei
ngpai
ntedbyhi
m yes
ter
day.
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Be2+S+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Wer
etheypai
nti
ngt
hewal
lyes
ter
day?
• Pas
sive:Be+S+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wast
hewal
lbei
ngpai
ntedbyt
hem yes
ter
day?
Negat
ives
• Act
ive:S+be2+not+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Wewer
enotpai
nti
ngt
hewal
lyes
ter
day.
• Pas
sive:S+be2+not+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Thewal
lwasnot
/was
nt̀bei
ngpai
ntedbyusyes
ter
day.
Negat
ivei
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Benot+S+V1i
ng+obj
ect
 • Wer
ent̀t
heypai
nti
ngt
hewal
lyes
ter
day?
• Pas
sive:Benot+S+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Was
nt̀t
hewal
lbei
ngpai
ntedbyt
hem yes
ter
day?
WH/
Inf
ormat
ionques
tions
• Act
ive:WH+be2+S+V1i
ng+obj
ect
• Whenwer
etheypai
nti
ngt
hewal
l
?
• Pas
sive:WH+be2+S+bei
ng+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Whenwast
hewal
lbei
ngpai
ntedbyt
hem?

Pas
tper
fectt
ens
e
Af
fi
rmat
ives
• Act
ive:S+had+V3+obj
ect
• Theyhadpl
ayedcr
icketbef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted.
• Pas
sive:S+had+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Cr
ickethadbeenpl
ayedbyt
hem bef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted.
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Had+S+V3+obj
ect
• Hadt
heypl
ayedcr
icketbef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted?
• Pas
sive:Had+S+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Hadcr
icketbeenpl
ayedbyt
hem bef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted?
Negat
ives
• Act
ive:S+had+not+V3+obj
ect
• Theyhadnot
/hadnt̀pl
ayedcr
icketbef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted.
• Pas
sive:S+had+not+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Cr
ickethadnot
/hadnt̀beenpl
ayedbyt
hem bef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted.
Negat
ivei
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Hadnot+S+V3+obj
ect
• Hadnt̀t
heypl
ayedcr
icketbef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted?
• Pas
sive:Hadnot+S+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
 • Hadnt̀cr
icketbeenpl
ayedbyt
hem bef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted?
WH/
Inf
ormat
ionQues
tions
• Act
ive:WH+had+S+V3+obj
ect
• Wher
ehadt
heypl
ayedcr
icketbef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted?
• Pas
sive:WH+had+S+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wher
ehadcr
icketbeenpl
ayedbyt
hem bef
oret
her
ains
tar
ted?

Fut
urei
ndef
ini
teTens
e
• Act
ivevoi
ce:S+wi
l
l/s
hal
l+V1
• Pas
sivevoi
ce:S+wi
l
lbe+V3
• Act
iveandpas
sivevoi
ceexampl
e:
• Ourpar
ent
swi
l
ltakeust
othepar
k.(
Act
ive)
• Wewi
l
lbet
akent
othepar
kbyourpar
ent
s.(
Pas
sive)

Fut
ureCont
inuous
Act
iveVoi
ce:S+wi
l
l/s
hal
l+be+V-
ing
ThePas
sive:S+wi
l
l/s
hal
l+bei
ng+V3
Act
iveandpas
sivevoi
ceexampl
e:
Hewi
l
lbewr
it
ingabook.(
Act
ive)
Abookwi
l
lbei
ngwr
it
tenbyhi
m.

Fut
ureper
fectt
ens
e
Af
fi
rmat
ives
• Act
ive:S+wi
l
lhave+V3+obj
ect
• I
wil
lhavedonemyhomewor
kbyt
het
imemyf
avor
it
emovi
est
art
sonTV.
• Pas
sive:S+wi
l
lhave+been+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Myhomewor
kwi
l
lhavebeendonebymebyt
het
imemyf
avor
it
emovi
est
art
s
onTV.
I
nter
rogat
ives
• Act
ive:Wi
l
l+S+have+V3+obj
ect+ROTS
• Wi
l
lIhavedonemyhomewor
kbyt
het
imemyf
avor
it
emovi
est
art
sonTV?
 • Pas
sive:Wi
l
l+S+havebeen+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wil
lmyhomewor
khavebeendonebymebyt
het
imemyf
avor
it
emovi
e
s
tart
sonTV?
Negat
ives
• Act
ive:S+wi
l
lnothave+V3+obj
ect
• I
wil
lnothavedonemyhomewor
kbyt
het
imemyf
avor
it
emovi
est
art
sonTV.
• Pas
sive:S+wi
l
lnot+havebeen+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Myhomeworkwi
l
lnothavebeendonebymebyt
het
imemyf
avor
it
emovi
e
st
art
sonTV?
WH/
Inf
ormat
ionques
tions
• Act
ive:WH+wi
l
l+S+have+V3+obj
ect
• Wher
ewi
l
lyouhavebui
l
tanewhous
ebyt
het
imeyourbus
ines
simpr
oves
?
• Pas
sive:WH+wi
l
l+S+havebeen+V3+pr
ep+obj
ect
• Wherewillanew hous
ehavebeenbui
l
tbyyoubyt
het
imeyourbus
ines
s
i
mproves
?

Changi
ngani
mper
ati
ves
ent
encei
nact
ivevoi
cet
opas
sive
Imperati
vesent
encesar
esent
enceswhi
chexpr
essadvi
ce,
reques
torcommand.
Forexample,
• Cl
oset
hedoor
.
• Pl
eas
egi
vemet
hebot
tl
e.
• Pi
ckupt
hephone.
Thes
esent
encesexpr
essadvi
ce,
reques
torcommand.
• Let+obj
ect+be+V3.
• Act
ive:Car
ryi
thome.
• Pas
sive:Leti
tbecar
ri
edhome.
• Act
ive:Doi
tatonce.
• Pas
sive:Leti
tbedoneatonce.
• Act
ive:Opent
hedoor
.
• Pas
sive:Lett
hedoorbeopened.
• Act
ive:Thr
owt
hebal
l
.
• Pas
sive:Lett
hebal
lbet
hrown.
• Whent
heact
ivevoi
cei
sint
henegat
ive,
thepas
sivevoi
cet
akest
hef
orm:
• Let+obj
ect+not+be+pas
tpar
ti
ci
ple.
• Act
ive:Donotbeatt
hedog.
• Pas
sive:Lett
hedognotbebeat
en.
• Not
ethatdoi
snotus
edi
nthepas
sivef
orm.
• Wecanbegi
nthepas
sives
ent
encewi
thyou
• i
fwewantt
oputemphas
isont
heper
sonaddr
ess
edt
o.
• Act
ive:Hel
pme.
• Pas
sive:Letmebehel
ped.
• Pas
sive:Youar
ereques
tedt
ohel
pme.
• Act
ive:Lear
nthepoem.
• Pas
sive:Lett
hepoem bel
ear
ned.
• Pas
sive:Youar
eas
kedt
olear
nthepoem.
• Act
ive:Don’
ttouchi
t.
• Pas
sive:Leti
tnotbet
ouched.
• Pas
sive:Youar
ewar
nednott
otouchi
t.
I
mper
ati
ves
ent
encescont
aini
ngr
eques
t
• Pas
sivevoi
ceofs
ent
encescont
aini
ngr
eques
tst
artwi
th‘
• Youar
ereques
tedt
o’.
• Gener
all
y,s
ent
encescont
aini
ngr
eques
thavet
hewor
d‘pl
eas
e’i
nit
.
• Nor
mal
str
uct
ureofs
ent
encei
npas
sivevoi
cei
sasunder
• Pl
easecl
oset
hedoor.(
Act
iveVoi
ce)
Youarer
equest
edtocl
osethedoor
.(Pas
siveVoi
ce)
• Pl
easebr
ingmesomeapples
.(Act
iveVoi
ce)
Youarer
eques
tedtobr
ingmes omeappl
es.(
Pas
siveVoi
ce)
• Pl
easeshowmeyourti
cket
s.(
Act
iveVoice)
Youarereques
tedt
oshowmeyourtickets
.(Pas
siveVoi
ce
I
mper
ati
ves
ent
encescont
aini
ngadvi
ce
• Pas
sivevoi
ceofs
ent
encescont
aini
ngadvi
ces
tar
twi
th
• ‘
Youar
eadvi
sedt
o’
• Nor
mal
str
uct
ureofs
ent
encei
npas
sivevoi
cei
sasunder
• Doyogadail
y.(
Acti
veVoice)
Youareadvi
sedtodoyogadail
y.(
Pas
siveVoi
ce)
• Doyourhomeworkneat
ly.
(Act
iveVoi
ce)
Youareadvi
sedt
odoyourhomewor kneat
ly.
(Pas
siveVoi
ce)
• Donotdr
ink.
(Act
iveVoi
ce)
Youar
eadvisednott
odrink.
(Pas
siveVoi
ce)
I
mper
ati
ves
ent
encescont
aini
ngcommandoror
der
• Pas
sivevoi
ceofs
ent
encescont
aini
ngcommandoror
dergener
all
yst
artwi
th
‘
Let’
• Nor
mal
str
uct
ureofs
ent
encei
npas
sivevoi
cei
sasunder
• Let+s
ubj
ect+be+V-
3
• Ex:
• Swit
chofft
hef
an.
(Act
iveVoice)
Lett
hefanbes
wit
chedoff
.(Passi
veVoi
ce)
• Call
theatt
endant.(
Acti
veVoice)
Lettheat
tendantbecal
led.
(Passi
veVoi
ce)
• Cookthefood.
(Act
iveVoice)
Lett
hefoodbecooked.(Passi
veVoi
ce)
• Youcanchangethesent
encescont
aini
ngcommandoror
deri
ntopas
sive
usi
ng‘
Youareor
deredt
o’al
so.
• Nor
mal
str
uct
ureofs
ent
encef
ort
hati
s
I
mper
ati
ves
ent
encescont
aini
ngs
ugges
tion
• Ther
ear
esomes
ent
enceswhi
chcont
ains
ugges
tion.
• Let
’ss
eehowt
oconver
tthes
esent
encesi
ntopas
sivebys
omeexampl
es.
• Ex:
• Res
pectpar
ent
s.(
Act
iveVoi
ce)
 Par
ent
sshoul
dber
espect
ed.
(Pas
siveVoi
ce)
• Lovet
heki
ds.
(Act
iveVoice)
Theki
dss
houl
dbel oved.(
Pass
iveVoi
ce)
• Fol
lowyourdr
eams.(
Act
iveVoi
ce)
Yourdr
eamsshoul
dbefoll
owed.(
Pas
siveVoi
ce)
Act
iveAndPas
siveVoi
ceWi
thModal
Ver
bs
• Wor
dss
hownbel
owar
eknownasmodal
ver
bsi
nEngl
i
shgr
ammar
.
• Can,
Coul
d,May,
Might
.Wi
l
l,Woul
d,Mus
t,Shal
l
,Shoul
d,Oughtt
o
• Nor
mal
str
uct
ureofs
ent
encei
nact
ivevoi
cewi
thmodal
sini
tis
• Subj
ect+modal
+ver
b+obj
ect
.(Act
iveVoi
ce)
• Ex:
Shecancookthefood.(Act
iveVoice)
(Her
e‘s
he’iss
ubject,
‘cook’i
sverband‘t
hef
ood’
isobj
ect
.)
• Whi
l
echangi
ngt
hes
ent
encei
ntopas
sive,
thi
sst
ruct
urebecomes
• Subj
ect+modal
+be+V3+by+agent
.(Pas
siveVoi
ce)
Ex:
• Thef
oodcanbecookedbyher
.(
Pas
siveVoi
ce)
• Thi
evesmays
teal
youracces
sor
ies
.(Act
ivevoi
ce)
• Youracces
sor
iesmaybes
tol
enbyt
hieves
.(Pas
sivevoi
ce)
• Youracces
sor
iesmaynotbes
tol
enbyt
hieves
.
• Mayyouracces
sor
iesbes
tol
enbyt
hieves
?
• Mai
ntenancecoul
dhaveobt
ainedani
cegar
den.
• Ani
cegar
dencoul
dhavebeenobt
ainedbymai
ntenance.
• Ani
cegar
dencoul
dn’
thavebeenobt
ainedbymai
ntenance.
Coul
dani
cegar
denbeobt
ainedbymai
ntenance?