Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of renewable energy utilization in islands

Yonghong Kuang a,b, Yongjun Zhang c, Bin Zhou a,n, Canbing Li a,n, Yijia Cao a, Lijuan Li a,
Long Zeng a
a
College of Electrical and Information Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
b
Hunan Institute of Engineering, Xiangtan 411104, China
c
School of Electric Power, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: With the surge in the fossil fuel prices and increasing environmental concerns, significant efforts have been
Received 19 November 2014 made to propel and develop alternative energy technologies to cope with the energy shortage for island
Received in revised form power grids. Recent advancements and developments on power electronic technologies have enabled the
17 September 2015
renewable energy sources to be grid-connected with gradually higher penetration in island electricity supply.
Accepted 2 January 2016
Available online 22 January 2016
Consequently, the utilization and efficiency of renewable energy resources in islands has received remarkable
attention from both the academia and industry. In this paper, a brief overview on the current status of island
Keywords: energy resources is described. Then, the existing utilization status and development potential of various
Island power renewable generations for island power grids, including solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, ocean and geo-
Microgrid
thermal energy, are investigated. Furthermore, the advanced technologies to improve the penetration level of
Renewable energy
island renewables, including energy storage techniques, hybrid renewable energy system, microgrid, demand
Grid integration
Energy storage side management, distributed generation and smart grid, are presented.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
2. Present situation of energy supply in islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
3. Development status and potential of renewable energy in islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
3.1. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
3.2. Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
3.3. Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
3.4. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
3.5. Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
3.6. Ocean energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
4. Strategies to improve the grid-integration of renewable energy in islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
4.1. Energy storage techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
4.2. Hybrid renewable energy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
4.3. Microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
4.4. Demand-side management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
4.5. Distributed generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
4.6. Smart grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

n
Corresponding authors. Tel.: þ 86 731 8388 9677; fax: þ 86 731 88664197.
E-mail addresses: binzhou@hnu.edu.cn (B. Zhou), licangbing@qq.com (C. Li).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.014
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513 505

1. Introduction energy storage, hybrid renewable energy system, microgrid,

demand side management, distributed generation and smart grid.
There are more than 50 thousand islands on the earth with a Lastly, the conclusion is drawn.
total area of over one sixth of global land area [1]. More than 740
million people inhabited in islands according to geographic
information system (GIS) analysis [2]. Electricity supply is an
2. Present situation of energy supply in islands
important issue in islands, and the most island power systems
mainly rely on the imported fossil fuels [3,4]. However, the oil
In islands, due to the isolation, small area and remoteness, the
price in islands is 3–4 times higher than that in the mainland [5,6],
traditional energy resources are limited. For the majority of islands
and the island economy may be vulnerable due to oil price fluc-
in the world, the imported fuel is still the main energy sources of
tuations. Some researches indicate that the gross domestic pro-
the power supply [21]. For instance, in Caribbean islands, 90% of
ducts (GDP) of Pacific Islands will be reduced by 1.5% due to ten-
the energy demand relies on imported fossil fuels. In addition, fuel
dollar hike for one barrel [7]. In recent years, the demand of
imports bills occupy up to 20% of annual import costs in majority
energy continues to increase in islands, at an annual growth rate of
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) [22]. Some islands spend
1.7% in Caribbean islands from 1970 to 2009 [8]. The oil price, with
an annual growth rate of 5% over the past two decades, would more than 30% of GDP on fuel imports. Thus, the energy cost is a
grow at an annual average rate of 3% in the next 20 years [9]. great burden for islands. So far, 130 million people worldwide, one
Consequently, some measures should be taken to deal with energy fifth of the world's population, have no access to electricity [23],
shortage and reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels in and a large number of islands, particularly the small and medium-
islands. size islands, are typical areas with low electricity coverage. For
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission causes global warming. CO2 is instance, 70% of households in the Pacific Islands have yet no
the primary contributor of GHG, and fossil fuel combustion electricity, with 96% of rural residents in Solomon Island
accounts for 90% of the CO2 emission [10,11]. Islands are the big- depending on traditional fuels for lighting [24].
gest victims of global warming, especially for these low elevation There is usually no grid connection between islands and
islands and coastal zones. According to the Intergovernmental mainland, and even between adjacent islands due to high costs of
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates, sea level has risen eight submarine transmission cables. Therefore, the island power supply
inches since 1870 [12]. Eleven islands including Maldives, Solomon is not stable and reliable, especially under the frequent extreme
Island and Tuvalu, are facing the crisis of being submerged [13]. weather conditions. Furthermore, most rural areas in the islands
Meanwhile, global warming causes the destruction of ecosystems are not always covered by power supply networks. Consequently,
and frequent extreme weather in islands, including hurricanes, the distributed diesel generators are often utilized for a few hours
storms, floods and other cases [14,15]. Therefore, the utilization of at night. Once the fuels are in short supply, the power supply will
renewable energy is of great significance for island power grids. be affected and even interrupted.
Although islands are faced with severe energy security, Owing to the deteriorative situation of energy security and
renewable energy resources, such as wind, solar, hydropower and shortage, people inhabited in islands have been seeking for new
biomass, are abundant to explore opportunities for power con- energy substitutes. Thus, utilization of renewable energy has been
version [7,16]. Normally, each island is blessed with more than one put on the agenda [7]. Every year SIDS will convene meetings to
renewable energy source for electricity utilization. Also, 100% of draw up plans and share experiences [25]. Besides, the Interna-
electricity consumption from renewable energy has even been tional Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has established Global
achieved in some islands [17]. The European Island Union has Renewable Energy Island Network (GREIN) to provide a platform
established island demonstration projects to prove that energy of exchange and cooperation for islands' renewable energy
supply in islands could rely on indigenous renewable energy development. More than 60 European islands signed the “Pact of
sources [18]. Islands” to achieve European Union (EU) sustainability targets for
With the recent rapid development of sustainable energy the year 2020 [26]. Moreover, Samsoe in the Baltic Sea, Canary
technologies and increasing demand for low-emission generation,
Island in the North Atlantic, Reunion in the Indian Ocean,
the utilization of renewable energy shows promising prospects for
Hawaiian Island in the Pacific and Guadeloupe Island in the Car-
island power grids. From the technical and economic aspects, it is
ibbean islands have made use of renewable energy to a large
quite feasible to substitute fossil fuels with renewable energy for
extent.
island power supply [17]. At the same time, microgrid technologies
So far, the dominated renewable energy resources used in
provide a flexible integrated platform for the development of
islands are biomass energy, hydropower, wind and solar energy,
renewable energy, in which distributed energy could be grid-
and electricity generation is the main form of renewable energy
connected with high penetration. Based on the electricity demand,
utilization. Table 1 shows the current renewable energy utilization
topographic position and renewable energy distribution, it is sui-
status in the selected islands across the world. It can be found that
table for islands to implement microgrid [9,19]. Meanwhile, with
further development of smart grid technologies including com- the proportion of renewable generations in the total electricity
munication, monitoring, control, and self-healing, the island generation varies from 0% to 100% in different islands, which is
energy utilization to accommodate multiplying renewable energy 59.3% in Fiji, and lower than 10% in most of islands, even close to
resources has been improved [20]. Hence, the ongoing develop- zero [21]. In Pellworm, a representative developed island, the
ment of power electronic technologies will further propel the electricity consumption per capita is 20,457 kWh and renewable
utilization of renewable energy in islands. energy generation accounts for 65.93% of the total electricity
The objective of this paper is to give a comprehensive review of generation [17]. This is much higher than the world average level
renewable energy utilization in islands. First, a brief overview on of 22.1% in 2013 [31]. Crete is a representative island devoted to
the current status of island energy supply systems is presented. the development of renewable energy. However, there is almost
Then, the development status and potential of renewable energy no renewable energy utilization in most of islands except for tra-
including solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, geothermal and ocean ditional biomass energy, such as Tuvalu in the undeveloped
energy are summarized. Third, the approaches to enhance the islands. Up to now, most islands over the world have released the
penetration of renewable energy in islands are provided, including development targets of renewable energy.
506 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513

Table 1
Electricity production from renewable energy in selected islands.

Island Total percentage of electricity Main type of renew- Renewable energy plan/target Electricity consumption Region Data sources
production from renewable able energy (percentage of total power) per capita (kWh)
energy (%)

Samsoe 100 Wind 100% (present) \ The Atlantic Ocean [17]

Pellworm 64.95 Wind, Solar 100% (present) 20,457 The North Atlantic [17]
Fiji 59.3 Wind, Hydropower 90% (2015) 946.8 The South Pacific [27,28]
Reunion 31.2 Hydropower, Biomass, 100% (2030) 3382 The Indian Ocean [17,28,29]
Ocean
Crete 26 Wind, Solar, Biomass 50% (2020) 3806 The Mediterranean [17,30]
Cape Verde 21 Wind, Biomass 50% (2020) 595 The Indian Ocean [28,31]
Cyprus 2.8 Wind, Solar 16% (2020) 4081 The Mediterranean [28,32]
Tuvalu 2 Wind, Solar 100% (2020) 489 The South Pacific [33]
Barbados 0.0 Solar 29% (2019) 3491 The Caribbean [28,34]

Table 2
Solar thermal utilization in selected islands.

Island Collector area (m2) Capacity of solar collectors Intensity of solar radiation Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions (tons/annual) Data sources

2
Reunion 410,664 502.6 m /1000 1400–2900 h/y 314,904 [28,41]
Barbados 219,690 319 kWth/1000 6.1 kW h/m2/day 38,869 [31,37,39]
Cyprus 700,947 425 kWth/1000 1900 kW h/m2/y 216,475 [31,38,39]

3. Development status and potential of renewable energy in installed capacity reached 319 kWth/1000 inhabitants in 2013,
islands which was much higher than the average value of 48.9 kWth/1000
inhabitants in the Caribbean islands [39]. Moreover, 40% of
There are abundant renewable energy resources in islands, and families and 50% of hotels use SWH to heat water [40], which can
the utilization of renewable energy is different for each island. In conserve 15% of electricity consumption [37]. In Reunion, SWH
this section, the typical islands are selected and surveyed to was initially utilized in the early 1990s, and the total area of solar
investigate their utilization status of renewable energy, based on collectors covered 410,664 m2 in 2009 and 1181.4 GW h of elec-
the available literatures and reports. Here, the exploitation tricity was saved annually [41]. The total collector area and col-
potential of renewable energy refers to the maximum utilization lector installations of unglazed and glazed water collectors in
estimates instead of economic efficiency. selected islands are shown in Table 2.
Though the SWH has great application potential, its popularity
3.1. Solar energy is still fairly low in many islands. For example, although 200 SWHs
have been installed in the 90s in Tuvalu, SWHs fail to prevail due
The sun emits energy at a rate of 3.8  1023 kW per second, and to lack of maintenance and unsatisfactory benefits. It can be found
the solar radiation reaching the earth's surface in a year is that the reasons causing the slow development of SWHs include
approximate to 3,400,000 EJ which is 7,500 times the world's total the costs, the residents' acceptance, the support of government
annual primary energy consumption of 450 EJ [35]. Generally, and other aspects.
there are two forms of solar energy utilization: solar thermal and Installed capacity of solar PV system is flexible, ranging from a
solar photovoltaic (PV). From 1990 to 2013, the solar thermal and few watts to hundreds of megawatts. Solar PV systems can be
solar PV grew at a rate of 11.6% and 45.5% per annum, respectively installed readily almost anywhere where there is sunshine, and
[36]. Furthermore, up until 2013, the global solar power genera- low operation costs are more economically competitive compared
tion was 106.4 TW h and the total installed capacity had reached to decentralized diesel generators. Consequently, the solar PV
139 GW [36]. systems in islands have been applied to schools, households and
The average radiation in islands around the equatorial region is communities, especially in the remote areas. In Pellworm, the
more than 4.5 kW h/m2/day [27]. Hence, solar energy can be uti- installed capacity of solar PV reaches 600 kW, which can produce
lized to various aspects including solar water heater (SWH), solar 225 MW h of electricity and accounts for 0.9% of the total power
PV, solar drying and solar cooling, etc. Due to easy installation and generation [17]. In Crete, although the potential of solar PV reaches
low costs, the SWH is widely used in islands, especially suited for 16.5 GW h per year, the actual installed capacity and annual elec-
hotels and families. Hot water heated by the solar energy can be tricity generation are only 0.67 MW and 0.17 GW h respectively
used for showering, cooking and washing. In order to improve the [42]. Reunion is committed to develop solar PV generations, and
popularity of SWH and reduce electricity consumption in some its installed capacity has increased exponentially in recent years.
islands, legislations have been enacted to install SWH on each new Hence, there is not only the large-scale PV power plant, but also
building. Besides, more electricity bills are charged for households the domestic PV system installed on the building roof with the
who use electricity to heat water [37]. capacity of less than 1 kW. In 2010, the installed capacity in
Cyprus is the global leader of SWH usage, in which 92% of Reunion nearly amounted to 80 MW and the total electricity
families and 53% of hotels are equipped with SWH systems [32]. It generation to 60 GW h [41].
has been reported that every five people is equipped with a SWH In the early stages of solar PV systems, high investment is
[38] and the cumulated unglazed/glazed water collector capacity needed and the PV systems may be damaged by extreme climate
in operation was 425 kWth/1000 inhabitants in 2013 [39], which events. Therefore, although many islands enjoy abundant natural
was the second highest in the world. On the other hand, SWHs in resources to develop PV generation, there is little and even no
Barbados were commercialized since the 1970s and its average development in the electricity generation from solar energy in a
 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513 507

Table 3
Status of renewable energy technologies: characteristics and costs [31].

Type of electricity Hydropower: grid- Hydropower: off- Solar PV: Solar PV: Solar thermal: Geothermal Wind: Wind: Small-
generation based grid/rural ground-mounted rooftop domestic hot power onshore scale turbine
technology utility-scale water systems

Plant size 1–18,000 MW 0.1–1000 kW 2.5–250 MW 3–5 kW 7–10 kWth (single 1–100 MW 1.5– o 100 kW
(residential) family) 3.5 MW
Capital costs 750–4000 1175–6000 1200–1950 2150–7000 147–2200 1900–5500 925–1950 6040 (United
($/kW) States)
Typical energy 2–23 5–40 9–40 (non- 28–55 (non- 1.5–28 (China) 4–19 4–16 15–20 (USA)
costs (cent/kWh) OECD) OECD)

Table 4 Table 4 tabulates the available potential and current utilization of

Potential and existing utilization of wind energy in selected islands. wind energy in selected islands. It can be found that the utilization
of wind energy is quite different among islands. Furthermore,
Island Wind Current Electricity Existing elec- Data sources
islands are confronted with a series of problems in the exploitation
speed installed potential tricity gen-
(m/s) capacity (GWh) eration process of wind power. The land ownership of wind power plants
(MW) (GWh) is one of the most prominent problems, and hence numerous
projects have been halted or delayed [33]. In addition, the location
Crete 10.1 134.75 900 336.7 [47,48]
selection and accurate assessment of wind power potential are
Samsoe 6.5–7.5 33 / 100% Power [18,49]
supply also the challenges in wind energy utilization.
Barbados 6.6 0 20 0 [50,51]
Cape Verde 5.75 26 / 8.33 [17,52,53] 3.3. Hydropower
Pellworm 5.55 5.7 91.5 15.136 [17,54,55,56]

Hydropower, as a clean energy resource with almost no emis-

majority of islands [37]. In addition, there are demonstration sion of GHG, has received the first-degree utilization and devel-
projects for solar utilization and it is far from industrialization. opment across the world. In 2013, hydropower accounted for
Table 3 lists the detailed capital costs of renewable energy gen- 16.4% of electricity, and the total installed capacity was 1000 GW
with 3750 TW h of electricity generation [31]. It is also an impor-
eration. It can be seen that the levelized costs of electricity (LCOE)
tant renewable energy source in islands, especially for mountai-
of solar PV systems is 2100–7000 $/kW, which is relatively high
nous region with abundant rainfall and storage reservoir. In Car-
among different renewable energy generations.
ibbean islands, hydropower accounts for 89% of installed renew-
able energy capacity [8]. In recent years, the medium (25–
3.2. Wind energy
250 MW) and small (o25 MW) hydropower projects have been
implemented to develop the clean hydro energy in islands [57].
Wind energy, the most common and promising renewable
In Fiji, the electricity generation from hydropower reached
energy resource nowadays, is very rich in most islands. The aver- 460 GW h in 2009. Meanwhile, the Nadarivatu Renewable Hydro
age wind speed is 3–10 m/s, with a maximum of 40–50 m/s [6]. Power Station with installed capacity of 40 MW can generate
According to incomplete statistics, more than 50% islands have 110,000 GW h and reduce 66,000 t CO2 emission per year [27],
achieved wind power generation, and 55.4% of electricity pro- while Reunion also totally depended on hydropower to provide
duced by renewable energy comes from wind power [6]. electricity in 1982. However, with the development of economy
In Samsoe, the electricity supply mainly relies on wind power and other alternative energy, the proportion of hydropower in
[17], and the existing eleven wind power plants in this island can island power systems has declined recently. Hence, the hydro-
produce 11 MW power output to balance the residential electricity power with 632 GW h of electricity and 121 MW installed capacity
demand. Meanwhile, the residual electricity can be sold to main- only accounted for a quarter of the total electricity generation in
land, reducing 15000 t of GHG emission every year [18]. In Crete, Reunion in 2008 [41].
the wind power has also been extensively used, and the installed In rural areas of islands with low electricity demand and
capacity of wind power reached 166 MW in 2009 [43]. Moreover, scattered population, many small and micro hydropower plants
the electricity generation from wind power reached 336.7 GW h are utilized to supply the electricity for dispersive consumers.
per annum [44]. In 2012, the Greek government approved two Although the initial capital costs of these projects are high, their
new wind power projects with capacity of more than 2000 MW operation and maintenance costs are low [31]. Moreover, the
[45]. In Reunion, the wind utilization potential can reach 60 MW, generation output of hydropower can be controlled flexibly and
and two wind power plants with a total installed capacity of rapidly in a large range, and thus can accommodate the power
14.7 MW started to operate in 2006 [41]. Also, the electricity fluctuation from other renewable energy. In the remote island
generation from these wind power plants was 15.5 MW h in 2009 rural areas, local electricity generation and consumption can avoid
[41]. Similarly, the largest average wind speed in Cape Verde has long-distance transmission losses and oil-dependent energy sup-
exceeded 12 m/s [46], and 8330 MW h of electricity was generated ply. Therefore, a variety of small hydropower stations are under
from wind energy in 2008, accounting for 10% of the total elec- plan and construction in these regions, and most of them are
tricity generation [17]. Also, the largest wind power plant with 30 small-scale hydropower projects, micro-hydro projects and ultra-
wind turbines has been launched in Cape Verde and the total micro-hydro projects, ranging from a couple of kilowatts to up to
installed capacity reached 25.5 MW in 2011. In some islands like tens of megawatts [57]. Table 5 shows the situation of small hydro
Barbados, wind energy is abundant while the current electricity power (SHP) development in selected Pacific Islands.
generation is quite scarce [34]. Pumped storage hydropower is developed rapidly over the
In many islands, the development and utilization of wind years in the world. Pumped hydro storage (PHS), with large sto-
power is still in the early assessment and monitoring stages [33]. rage capacity, is the most common energy storage method at
508 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513

Table 5
Situation of SHP development in selected Pacific Islands [57].

Island Total percentage of electricity pro- SHP potential installed SHP installed capa- Annual SHP poten- Barriers to SHP development
duction from hydropower (%) capacity (MW) city (MW) tial (GWh)

Fiji 48.0 14.7 10.0 1089 ● Lack of funding

Polynesia 38.25 65 47 300 ● Absent of native experts
Samoa 28 22 11.9 / ● Lack of incentives for investment in the
electricity market
New Caledonia 12.4 9.4 27.1 300 ● Excessive dependence on external
assistance
Solomon Islands 0.7 11 0.298 / ● Lack of systematic hydrological surveys

present. In 2013, global pumped storage capacity increased by bio-fuels to replace diesel in electricity generation and transpor-
2 GW and the cumulative installed capacity reached about 140 GW tation. In Tonga and Solomon Islands, full exploitation of coconut
[31]. PHS is also a solution to maintain a steady electricity supply oil can offset half of annual diesel imports [58,59]. In addition,
for islands and improve the penetration level of renewable energy compared to the imported fuels, the coconut oil not only has the
integrated into power grids. The power output of PHS stations can price superiority in that the diesel price is $ 0.8/L while coconut oil
be regulated rapidly, flexibly and reliably to accommodate the price is $ 0.3/L [60], but also is free from import restrictions. Thus,
volatile and stochastic power from other renewable energy. Thus, the coconut oil can reduce the influence of oil price fluctuations on
PHS can be employed for peak shaving and frequency regulation in islands and also improve the energy security. With various mate-
islands to improve the utilization of renewable energy. Never- rial sources and utilization forms, the biomass energy enjoys a
theless, the development of hydropower is fairly difficult for promising development.
islands with unfavorable geography, such as Cape Verde, Samsoe
and Tuvalu. 3.5. Geothermal energy

3.4. Biomass energy Geothermal energy refers to the heat from the depths of the
earth, which usually exists in volcanic areas. It is an effective
Biomass energy is an abundant renewable energy resource on renewable energy resource which is not intermittent. There are
the earth. The total primary energy consumption of biomass two forms of geothermal energy utilization: geothermal heating
reached approximately 57 EJ in 2013, which accounted for 10% of and geothermal generation. Over the years, the geothermal gen-
global primary energy supply [31]. Also, the biomass supplies the eration has undergone a rapid development in the world. The
primary energy consumption in some islands and is widely used average annual growth rate in cumulative capacity was 3% from
for cooking, heating and lighting. There are two forms to exploit 2010 to 2012 and reached 4% in 2013 [31]. Thus, the total installed
biomass energy, namely traditional biomass and modern biomass. capacity and electricity generation reached 12,000 MW and
Traditional biomass energy is still the main form of utilization in 76,000 GW h respectively in 2013 [31], and the former is estimated
most of islands, including directly firing solid wood and agri- to increase to 19,800 MW in 2015 [61].
cultural residues. However, the direct combustion of biomass has a Many islands are in the plate junction where the geothermal
lower efficiency of 5–15% and produces large amounts of GHG energy is rich. For instance, São Miguel is a typical volcanic island,
while modern biomass energy has a higher efficiency of 60–90% and its geothermal generation accounted for 42% of electricity in
with less impact on the environment. Therefore, more and more 2007. The total installed capacity of geothermal generation in São
islands turn to utilize the modern biomass. Miguel reached 27.8 MW in 2008 [62]. Besides, Guadeloupe is one
Modern biomass energy, including methane, fuel ethanol, bio- of a few islands which utilize geothermal energy to generate
logical fuel oil, and so on, has been utilized in islands. In Crete, the electricity among Caribbean islands. In this island, geothermal
biomass potential is about 360 GW h every year [47], and it can power plant with 15 MW installed capacity produced 102 GWh of
provide an effective substitute for the traditional energy. Fur- electricity in 2005 [63].
thermore, the remainders of 600 olive oil processing factories and Fiji and Solomon Islands are located in the junction of the
other subsidiary agricultural waste can reach 517,719 thousand Pacific plate and the Australian-Indian plate. These areas have
tons per year, and can generate 12 MW power outputs from bio- great potentials to exploit geothermal energy resources. However,
mass power plants [42]. In Reunion, the biomass energy is the the development of geothermal energy in these areas is still at the
largest energy source except for fossil fuels. Moreover, the bagasse planning and deployment stage with zero installed capacity. For
and coal mixture power plants were built in 2005, and it burned instance, although St Lucia with 170 GW h potential per year
590 thousand tons of bagasse and had an installed capacity of began to exploit geothermal energy as early as 40 years ago [64],
108 MW [41]. Consequently, 10.31% of electricity was produced by there is yet no electricity generation so far. On the other hand, the
sugarcane bagasse in 2008 [29]. Also, the potential of organic initial capital costs of geothermal energy are relatively high, and
waste to produce electricity is 1281 GW h in Reunion every year there are also geographical limitations for the geothermal energy
[41]. In Fiji, the biomass energy accounts for more than 50% of development.
primary energy consumption [27], and lots of sugarcane bagasse
are utilized for heating and electricity generation. About 3% of 3.6. Ocean energy
electricity was produced by bagasse plants and other biomass
generation in 2008 [27]. In order to develop biomass energy, the Many islands are blessed with various types of ocean energy, in
government supports the biofuels such as biodiesel, coconut oil the forms of wave, tide, marine current, salinity gradient or ocean
and bio-ethanol with massive subsidies in Fiji [33]. thermal gradient [65–68]. Compared with wind and solar energy,
Many islands have abundant coconut oil, and it can be tradi- the ocean energy is characterized by less volatility and better
tionally used for cooking and drying and also be processed into predictability, and the existing ocean energy utilization is still in
 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513 509

the early development and demonstration stages. Most notably,

Spinning reserve, energy storage, peak shaving, frequency modulation

Energy storage, voltage control, fluctuation suppression, power qual-

Energy storage, voltage control, fluctuation suppression, power qual-

Spinning reserve, energy storage, peak shaving, frequency modula-
the utilization of wave energy and ocean thermal energy conver-

Spinning reserve, black start, peak shaving, demand side manage-

Energy storage, power quality controller, peak shaving, spinning

Power quality controller, black start, peak shaving, demand side
sion (OTEC) has received more attention in islands. There are some
demonstration projects to utilize ocean energy for electricity
supply, such as a 10 MW OTEC power plant in Reunion [41], a

Energy storage, power quality controller, peak shaving

1.5 MW wave energy system in Micronesia [33], and a seawater air
conditioning project under construction in Oahu Island [35]. With
the development of energy conversion technologies, ocean power
generation will have a promising and attractive prospect in the

management, loss reduction, area control

future.

ment, loss reduction, area control

4. Strategies to improve the grid-integration of renewable
energy in islands

tion, phase modulation

The inherent characteristics of renewable energy sources, such
as the intermittence of wind and solar energy and the seasonality

ity controller

ity controller
of hydropower and so on, would lead to the imbalance between

Response time Application

energy supply and demand, and then fail to guarantee the con-

reserve
tinuity and reliability of power supply. Therefore, developing the
grid-integration technologies for utilization of island renewable
energy is important to ensure a continuous and stable power
supply.

4.1. Energy storage techniques

min

min

ms

ms

ms

ms
s

s
Renewable energy is characterized by inherent volatility and
randomness, while the island power grids should maintain the

Life (year) Capital cost

900–1,300
balance of supply and demand in a real-time mode. Energy storage

400–800
350–800
125–250
($/kWh)

50–270
techniques are the effective approaches to cope with the stochastic

10–70

3–70

2–15
and volatile behaviors of renewable energy generation, and the
redundant renewable energy can be transformed to mechanical
energy, electromagnetic energy and chemical energy in various
30–50

20–40

10–20
14–16

10–15
energy storage systems (ESSs). Also, the stored energy can be

5–20
5–15

20
released when electricity generation from renewable energy is
insufficient. Hence, the energy storage techniques can provide the
Cycling capability

energy buffering to accommodate the output variation of renew-

able energy generation. Blechinger et al. [9] provided a compara-

100–10,000
tive analysis for the energy supply system, in which the penetra-
0.2–1.8

1.5–3.5

tion level of renewable energy with energy storage can be up to

20–50

10–30

4–40

70.9% while the level without energy storage is only 45.8%. It can 2–15
(k)

20
be found that a reliable energy storage system is an important and
effective approach to improve the renewable energy penetration
Energy efficiency

[69,70].
Energy storage techniques, including PHS, battery energy sto-
rage (BES), compressed air storage (CAS), flywheels energy storage
80–90%

70–85%
78–88
70–85

70–80
70–80

40–70

(FES), hydrogen energy storage (HES), super capacitors storage

85%
(%)

(SCS) and so on, have been used in island power grids [71]. The
ESSs in island power grids can be determined by various factors,
including the storage capacity, charging and discharging time,
Specific energy

location selection for ESSs, geographical conditions of islands,

100–1000
Characteristics of different energy storage systems.

investment and operational costs, etc. So far, BES, HES and PHS are
150–240
(Wh/kg)

80–200
3.2–5.5
30–50

5–100
16–60

main energy storage techniques used in islands. Table 6 presents

Low

the characteristic parameters for different ESSs.

BES is one of the most popular energy storage techniques in
market, and the main types of BES include lead-acid battery,
Specific power

lithium-ion battery, vanadium redox battery (VRB), nickel–cad-

600–1200

mium battery and sodium–sulphur (NaS) battery. Different BES is

245–500
180–200

150–230
(W/kg)

11,900
Vanadium redox 10–50

applicable for different situations of island energy systems based

Low

low

on the characteristics of batteries including energy storage capa-

city, charging and discharging rates, lifetime, roundtrip efficiency
and costs. For example, lead-acid battery is applicable for small-
Storage type

scale energy storage system (o10 MW), while lithium-ion battery

Lead-acid

and VRB are used more universally in large-scale energy storage

Li-ion
Table 6

PHS

HES
CAS

NaS

system (4 10 MW) [72]. The lead-acid battery is the most mature

FES

technique which can be used extensively to provide reliable power

510 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513

supply by combining diesel fuel and renewable energy in islands In some cases, ESS requires both relatively high energy density
[73]. With the assistance of lead-acid battery, the total installed and power density, and hence the hybrid energy storage system is
capacity of renewable energy in Apolima Island can achieve 100% a better solution than a single storage system, especially for
of electricity demand in 2005 [72]. NaS battery with high energy microgrids. Thus, a hybrid ESS combining the VRB with super
density and long cycle life is applied to Nan'ao Island, and simu- capacitor is applied to microgrid in order to satisfy the energy
lations demonstrate that renewable energy can be integrated into storage requirements [82]. In the hybrid ESS, the VRB character-
the isolated grid with high penetration in remote islands [74]. In ized by high energy density and preferable long-time storage is
Crete, wind power curtailment is minimized by means of the NaS used for microgrid autonomy, while super capacitor with high
battery which shifts the electrical energy from wind power from power density and preferable short-time storage is employed to
off-peak to on peak [75]. Furthermore, lithium-ion battery features cope with fast power variations [82]. Furthermore, George et al.
excellent weight-to-energy and weight-to-power ratios compared analyzed a stand-alone power system with flywheel and battery
to other types of batteries, which is suitable for mobile application. storages from the viewpoints of economy and feasibility, and then
Besides, VRB can respond to supply or absorb power at once and concluded that the hybrid energy storage system cannot only meet
the storage capacity can be precisely designed according to system the real-time electricity demand, but also show its superiority on
requirements, and thus some islands have adopted this energy operational costs compared with single battery storage [83].
storage technique. In King Island, a VRB energy storage system has
been installed to improve the utilization of wind power and 4.2. Hybrid renewable energy system
decrease the diesel generation [72].
PHSs have been widely used, accounting for 98.3% of installed Due to its inherent seasonality, variability, periodicity and other
storage capacity for global power grids in 2011 [76]. The energy characteristics, a single renewable energy generation, such as
conversion efficiency of PHS can achieve 70–85% and it would solar, wind, geothermal and hydropower generation, is difficult to
maintain a rapid growth rate in the coming decades [77]. Large- provide a continuous and economic power supply all the time
scale PHS is applicable for the islands with large peak load demand [80]. Consequently, the hybrid energy system with multiplying
over 50 MW [70], and it has been widely utilized to improve the renewable generations can be formed and utilized to alleviate the
penetration level of alternative renewable energy and reduce intermittent and unstable effects of electricity supply [17]. For
environmental pollution in islands. The variability and predict- most of islands, the sunlight is sufficient for generating abundant
ability of wind power have constrained its full utilization to power electricity from PV panels in summer, and thus more energy from
grids, but the PHS can regulate its power output to reduce the PV can be used and stored for electricity supply. On the other
influence on system stability and frequency quality. It has been hand, the sunlight will be weakened in winter and wind power is
demonstrated that, with an optimum-sized economic analysis for the main contributor to support more electricity supply. In addi-
the wind powered PHS system in Gran Canaria Island, the pene- tion, in the rain season, the islands will give priority to utilizing
tration of renewable energy can be increased by 1.93%, saving the hydropower with low costs. There are various configurations
52.55 GW h of electricity, 13,655 t of fossil fuels and reducing for hybrid renewable energy systems, such as wind/PV, PV/bio-
43,064 t of carbon dioxide emissions [78]. Moreover, the PHSs can mass, wind/hydropower, wind/PV/biomass, etc. [84].
be utilized for implementation with high feasibility in islands from Hybrid renewable energy system is an effective solution to
the economic and technical viewpoints. Tao Ma et al. have dis- electricity supply for islands as well as remote villages, in which
cussed the technical feasibility of island energy system with PHS, the electricity generation from renewable energy can exceed 50%
and then concluded that the PHS can be used as an effective of the total generations [69]. Therefore, the extensive investiga-
complement to accommodate the intermittency and volatility of tions based on hybrid renewable energy system in islands have
solar and wind energy. Consequently, a reliable island electricity been carried out. Ma et al. designed a hybrid solar-wind-battery
supply can be ensured and then GHG emissions were reduced to system to provide 100% power supply for power consumers, in
achieve the 100% energy self-sufficiency [70]. which solar and wind energy accounted for 84% and 16%, respec-
Compared with CAS, SCS and FES, the HES with high energy tively [84]. Also, from the perspectives of environmental and
density can respond rapidly to balance power supply and demand, ecosystem protection, Katsaprakakis DA analyzed a hybrid power
improve frequency quality, and smooth the power output of system which is dominated by wind and solar energy with a diesel
renewable energy. HES has some interesting characteristics, and generator as the reserve unit. In this energy system, the renewable
the production, storage and usage of hydrogen are mutually energy can supply 94% of total electricity demand, with low
independent [79]. There are various ways to produce hydrogen, operational and maintenance costs as well as unrestraint of diesel
including gasifying coal/ biomass/fuel, and wind/solar transfor- price fluctuations [85]. Meanwhile, a hybrid renewable energy
mation, etc. On the other hand, hydrogen can be used as fuel cell, system is designed to decrease the high dependency on expensive
generation fuel and transportation fuel. Hydrogen, as an energy fossil fuels. By means of the coordination between wind energy
vector, has been applied to the islands of Mljet-Croatia, Porto and water reservoirs, the energy system with 90% penetration of
Santo-Madeira, Terceira-Azores, and Malta [79]. It has also been renewable energy can meet the real-time electricity demand, thus
indicated that renewable energy can not only provide 100% power greatly decreasing the electricity costs [86].
supply in islands, but also offer 100% transport fuel supply by
converting renewable energy into hydrogen under certain condi- 4.3. Microgrid
tions. In Porto Santo Island, due to lack of ESS to restrain wind
power variability, only 45% of the power output from wind tur- Microgrid is a small-scale localized energy system consisting of
bines can be utilized. Through the hydrogen storage technique, the various distributed generators, energy storage devices, and local
utilization rate of wind power can be improved up to 100% [80]. In loads [19,87]. Microgrid can operate flexibly in the islanded mode
addition, an isolated power system with HES has been designed and grid-connected mode, and the distributed renewable gen-
and implemented in Milos Island, and further comparative ana- erators can be installed in various locations in microgrids. With
lysis indicates that the system can increase the penetration level of the coordinated control of microgrid, the variability and inter-
renewable energy from 0.13 to 0.85, thus reducing 50% of fossil mittency of renewable energy can be partially dispatchable. Fur-
fuel consumption and electricity costs [81]. thermore, local electricity generation and consumption in
 Y. Kuang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 504–513 511

microgrids can avoid the power losses from long-distance trans- metering technology, the information of renewable energy gen-
mission, and hence is particularly suitable for isolated islands. eration can be delivered in real time to customers and electricity
So far, various demonstration projects for microgrid have been demand of customers can also be fed back to the renewable gen-
implemented in many islands, and the corresponding techniques eration units, which constructs a bidirectional communication
have also been extensively studied to enhance the penetration of flow. Thus, renewable energy generation can be automatically
renewable energy. Williams et al. analyzed the organizational regulated to match the electricity demand in order to achieve the
structure and development situation of microgrids as well as the operational objectives as efficiently as possible, minimizing
advanced technologies of monitoring, measuring, energy conver- environmental impacts and maximizing system reliability and
sion, and control strategies, and then concluded that high- stability. Constructing the smart grid is an important measure for
penetration renewable energy was integrated into microgrids to many islands to develop renewable energy [41,49]. An energy-
ensure the stable and reliable electricity supply [19]. Besides, Zhao independent smart network utilizing ocean and wind energy is
et al. presented an optimization approach to design East Fukuyama studied in Aran Island community, and the intelligent control
Island's microgrid to alleviate the dependence on imported fossil algorithm can optimize the electricity consumption to minimize
fuels and reduce the expense on energy services [88]. In Pulau costs [94]. In Moushuni Island, smart grid technologies play an
Ubin Island, an islanding microgrid is designed as a demonstration essential role in the integration of solar energy to power grid to
project to utilize local renewable energy for electricity supply. The obtain economic and environment benefits [95].
proposed microgrid system can not only reduce the electricity
costs, but also alleviate the reliance on traditional fossil fuels [89].
5. Conclusion
4.4. Demand-side management
In islands, lack of fuel supply and environmental pollution
In islands, the electricity generation is mainly used for com- issues oblige people to develop and exploit local alternative
merce and residence. With the advent of advanced communica- renewables for the sustainable electricity supply, and most islands
tion and information infrastructures, the responsive demand side are blessed with abundant renewable energy resources. So far,
management can be utilized to coordinate the residential energy various renewable energy sources have been utilized for electricity
consumption with varying power generations from renewable generation in island power grids. While hydropower, wind energy,
energy sources [90]. Demand side management refers to the and solar power are the main contributor to island energy con-
coordination between the power supply and demand through sumption, only a few islands make use of modern biomass, geo-
end-user appliance management. In islands, end-users can switch thermal and ocean energy for electricity generation. In addition,
on electrical appliances when the power generation of renewable
the renewable energy installations among islands are different.
energy is sufficient, and reduce or even switch off them under the
Some islands have achieved the goal that 100% of electricity is
condition of insufficient electricity supply. Therefore, the demand
generated from renewable energy, while in most of islands only a
side management can schedule the end-users' appliance usages to
small proportion with less than 10% of total energy is produced
balance the irregular power generation from island renewable
from renewable energy. The most obvious obstacle of renewable
energy. In Reunion, the average growth rate per year of electricity
energy utilization is the variability and randomness of weather-
generation decreased from 5.3% to 3.6% through demand side
dependent renewables, and a series of effective measures have
management [41]. In Oahu Island, the hourly demand-side man-
been employed, including energy storage, microgrid, hybrid
agement is adopted to accommodate the power supply so as to
renewable energy system, demand side management, distributed
improve both the operational efficiency of thermal plants and
generation and smart grid, to further enhance the utilization of
wind energy penetration [91].
renewable energy. With the advent of advanced communication
and information infrastructures in the future smart grids, the
4.5. Distributed generation
utilization of grid-connected renewable energy sources will have a
promising prospect to improve the efficiency, economics, relia-
Distributed generation makes use of dispersed available energy
bility, and energy conservation in island energy systems.
sources for electricity generation and can be connected directly to
the distribution network or on the customer side. Thus, less
transmission loss and costs, less configurations of transmission
Acknowledgements
and distribution, and less transmission congestion can be obtained
compared with conventional centralized generation pattern [92].
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the National
In addition, the rating of distribution generation is flexible, ranging
from a couple of kilowatts to up to hundreds of megawatts, which High Technology Research and Development of China (863 Pro-
is suitable for islands with isolated location and spare population. gram: 2011AA050203), the National Natural Science Foundation of
Various scenarios of power supply in Gӧkceada, which consider China (51507056), and also would like to express our sincere
the integration of distributed generation including wind power, thanks to the organizations and individuals whose literatures have
PV, diesel generators and so on, are simulated, and not only energy been cited in this paper.
costs can be reduced but also power supply can be provided by
alternative energy, thus increasing the continuity and reliability of
power supply [93]. Meanwhile, some distributed generation pro- References
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