Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Renewable energy supply chains, performance, application barriers,

and strategies for further development
Hui-Ming Wee a,n, Wen-Hsiung Yang b,1, Chao-Wu Chou c,2, Marivic V. Padilan d,3
a
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli 32023, Taiwan, ROC
b
17F.-12, No.6, Ln. 28, Long’an Rd., Sijhih Dist., New Taipei City 221, Taiwan ROC
c
School of Management, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Sec 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC
d
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli 32023, Taiwan, ROC

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Due to the depletion of traditional energy resources, such as crude oil, coal, and natural gas, many
Received 21 June 2011 initiatives all over the world have addressed the efficient use or replacement of these resources. Several
Received in revised form renewable energy sources have been introduced as alternatives to traditional sources to protect
2 June 2012
environmental resources and to improve the quality of life. This study assesses renewable energy
Accepted 4 June 2012
Available online 31 July 2012
sources from a supply chain perspective and presents an investigation of renewable energies focusing
on four main components: renewable energy supply chain, renewable energy performance, and barriers
Keywords: and strategies to its development. The study provides managerial insights to governments, researchers,
Renewable energy and stakeholders for the initiation of renewable energy use, and suggestions for overcoming the
Supply chain
barriers to its development.
Electric storage
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Hybrid energy system
Fuel cell

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5452
2. Renewable energy resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5452
2.1. Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5452
2.2. Hydropower and tidal/wave energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5452
2.3. Geothermal energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5452
2.4. Wind energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5452
2.5. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5453
3. Renewable energy supply chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5453
3.1. Supply chain process flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5454
3.2. Renewable energy supply chain issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5454
4. Performance of renewable energy supply chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5454
4.1. Conversion efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5454
4.2. Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5455
4.2.1. Types of storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5455
4.2.2. Fuel cell applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5455
4.2.3. Hybrid energy systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5457
5. Barriers to renewable energy development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5457
5.1. Conversion cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5457

n
Correspondence to: Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli 32023, Taiwan, ROC. Tel.: þ 886 3 2654409;
fax: þ 886 3 2654499.
E-mail addresses: weehm@cycu.edu.tw (H.-M. Wee), jhs.why@gmail.com (W.-H. Yang), mike.chou0916@gmail.com (C.-W. Chou),
marivicpadilan@yahoo.com (M.V. Padilan).
1
Tel.: þ886 922 935 243.
2
Tel.: þ886 935 200 966.
3
Tel.: þ886 3 2654458.

1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.06.006
5452 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

5.2. Location selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5457

5.3. Distribution network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5459
5.4. Other barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5459
6. Improving the renewable energy supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5460
6.1. Involvement of the government and researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5460
6.2. Commercializing the use of renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5461
6.3. Realizing the value of renewable energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5461
6.4. Distribution network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5461
6.4.1. Smart grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5461
6.4.2. Centralized, decentralized, and distributed energy networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5461
6.5. Selecting storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5464
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5464
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5464

1. Introduction For example, biomass can be converted to provide an electric power

source for automobiles. Fig. 1 illustrates the biomass energy flow [2].
Although traditional power generation has satisfactorily sup- Given the diversity of biomass resources, its applications are
ported residential and industrial needs for centuries, it is losing its not limited to the production of fuel or electricity; subsidiary
advantage due to environmental and economic concerns. Renew- products can also be produced during the conversion process.
able energy (RE) has become a driving force in the effort to Fig. 2 shows that biomass energy can be converted into fuel,
sustain the earth’s natural resources and to improve the users’ electricity, and heat using three main conversion technologies [3]:
quality of life. RE can be defined as a free source of sustainable thermochemical, biochemical, and extraction processes.
energy, such as wind or solar energy that produces no negative
impacts during conversion process like the emission of hazardous 2.2. Hydropower and tidal/wave energy
substances. Recent eco-consciousness agendas in many countries
have set goals for the development of RE, specifically for its Rain and seawater are valuable for a wide range of uses.
efficient generation and conversion to a consumable form of Electric power generated by the flow of water through mills or
energy and its commercialization in the market. However, higher turbines is widely used in industrial, agricultural, and residential
conversion costs, limited locations, environmental impacts, and applications. Besides generating electric power, water also acts as
other factors pose barriers to such development. To surmount a coolant in power-plant operations or hydroelectric dams and
these barriers, governments, researchers, and stakeholders should can support other industrial operations, such as fuel extraction
work together to enhance the conversion efficiency of RE, develop and refining processes [4]. Hydropower can also be generated by
advanced storage technologies, control distribution efficiency, the conversion of tidal or wave action. Since tidal and wave is
and commercialize the use of RE ultimately. constantly moving, a storage system is required to conserve
This paper assesses the RE from a supply chain (SC) perspec- energy during off-peak hours. Fig. 3 illustrates the hydropower
tive to identify the values of each node in the flow as well as the process flows [4–6].
limitations and breakthrough points comparing with the current
electric power generation system. To this end, this paper presents 2.3. Geothermal energy
an objective study that examines the four main components of RE
business: RE supply chain, RE performance, and barriers and Although there is no standard definition for geothermal energy,
strategies to its development. Dickson and Fanelli [7] stated that ‘‘geothermal’’ refers to all the
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 enumerates the thermal energy stored between the earth’s surface and a specified
types of RE; the Renewable energy supply chains section illus- depth in the crust. According to Pearl [8], the resources of geother-
trates the flows and issues of the RE supply chain; Section 4 mal are classified into water, heat, and minerals. The heat can be
discusses the performance of RE; Sections 5 and 6 consider the converted into other energy forms in accordance with the depth of
barriers and strategies to the development of RE, respectively; the earth to support various usage purposes. (see Fig. 4).
and Section 4 presents the conclusions drawn from the study. Besides directly utilizing heat resources, as with other RE sources,
heat energy has to be converted into another energy form in order to
be used in industrial and agricultural purposes. Heat-pump systems
2. Renewable energy resources can reserve geothermal energy, facilitating the balance of low and
high demand peaks. Electricity generation is widely used to support
Several RE resources have been developed and successfully residential or industrial daily usage. However, the acquisition of
implemented. A secondary process that converts RE into other energy geothermal energy is restricted to certain locations in order to
resources is required to fully utilize RE in a variety of applications. realize most of its efficiency outcome. Its collection and conversion
This section describes biomass, hydropower, geothermal, wind, and require large financial and technological investments as well. Fig. 5
solar energy sources and process flows. shows the process flows of geothermal energy [9–12].

2.4. Wind energy

2.1. Biomass
Wind energy is not new and had been used to pump water in
Biomass encompasses a variety of organic resources, such as farms for many years. Following the RE development, wind turbines
wood and other plant-based materials from agricultural, forestry, have been widely selected to generate electric power. Many wind
and industrial waste [1]. Several technological processes are avail- turbines are located in offshore in order to collect massive wind
able to convert this waste into usable energy resources and power and to lower the environmental impact on land usage. With
products, such as ethanol, biodiesel, electric power, and plastics. the support of technology, smaller wind turbine has been developed
 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465 5453

Sources Conversion Primary Products Secondary Demand

Agricultural Fuels:
– Agricultural Crops – Ethanol
– Agricultural Residues - Enzymatic – Renewable Diesel
Fermentation – Renewable Gasoline Transportation
Forestry - Gas/liquid – Hydrogen - Power
– Forest Residues Fermentation generator Electric Power
– Wood - AcidHydrolysis/ Power: - FullCell -
– Grasses Fermentation – Electricity
- Gasification – Heat (co- generation) Industrial
Industrial residues - Pyrolysis
- Combustion Chemicals
Wastes - Co-firing – Plastics Residential &
– Animal Wastes – Solvents Commercial
– Municipal Solid Waste
– Chemical Intermediates
– Phenolics
– Adhesives
– Furfural
– Fatty acids
– Acetic Acid
– Carbon black
– Paints
– Dyes, Pigments, and Ink
– Detergents
– Etc.

Food, Feed and Fiber

Fig. 1. Biomass energy flows [2].

Thermochemical
conversion Primary outcomes Secondary Conversion Demand

Combustion Steam Steam turbine

Gas turbine combined
Gasification cycle, engine
Gas Fuel Cell
Methanol/ hydrocarbons/
Pyrolysis hydrogen, synthesis
Liquefaction Oil Upgrading Diesel
HTU
Charcoal
Biochemical
conversion Gas engine
Digestion Biogas

Fermentation Distillation Ethanol

Extraction
Esterification Bio-diesel
(oilseeds)

Fig. 2. Biomass conversion technologies and outcomes [3].

to generate energy in urban areas. However, wind strength is generation, solar energy has been used widely to supply electric
unpredictable and dynamic; hence it must be stored to balance power to many personal portable devices. This RE type is more
electricity demand cycles. In addition, wind energy can couple with flexible than the other RE sources, and its initial setup requires a
solar or hydropower energy for a constant and stable energy source. relatively small investment. However, energy storage is essential
Fig. 6 shows the wind energy generation flows [13]. to supply energy demands in the absence of sunlight. Fig. 7 shows
the solar energy generation process flows [14].
2.5. Solar energy

Solar power is an important and widely used RE type. Solar 3. Renewable energy supply chains
radiation and heat are converted into solar energy, which is used
to generate electric power. This RE source is abundant, especially The resource of RE is enormous and inconstant. It is always
in tropical countries. Besides being used in electric power changing and unpredictable due to uncontrollable weather
5454 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

Sources Primary Outcome Secondary process Demand

Power Plant Cooling: Coal,

Cooling Nuclear, Natural Gas, Oil,
Concentrating Solar, Geothermal,
Water Biomass

Hydro power Electricity Industrial

Conventional Residential
Run-of-Water Pumped Water
Fly wheel
Fuel Cell
Hydrogen Automobile…

Buoyant Moored Device

Hinged Contour Device Electricity Industrial
Wave
Oscillating Water Column Residential

Bulb Turbine
Tidal Barrage Rim Turbine
Tubular Turbine
Tidal Industrial
Pumping Electricity Residential
Tidal Stream Tidal fences
Tidal turbines

Fig. 3. Types of hydropower process flow [4–6].

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES In terms of demand, the commercialization of RE would be an

important step to replace traditional fossil energy. As such,
WATER HEAT MINERALS efficient RE generator and storage technologies are the crucial
innovations for RE.

LOW TEMP. MODERATE TEMP. HIGH TEMP. 3.2. Renewable energy supply chain issues
<100°C 100-200°C >200°C

Heating Electricity Electricity Like traditional sources of electric power generation, each RE
Industrial Heating type is limited by the inherent characteristics of the energy source.
Agricultural Industrial Intermittency, variability, and maneuverability are three key vari-
Recreation Agricultural ables of RE resources that require effective management and control.
In addition, due to the nature of RE, a second conversion process to
Fig. 4. Geothermal resources [8]. save energy for use in off-hours is necessary. Fig. 9 shows the factors
in the use of RE resources for each stage in the RE supply chain
conditions and other factors in which the RE resources are [17–19].
dependent. With this, the utilization and distribution of RE are
the major tasks in the RE supply chain.
4. Performance of renewable energy supply chains
3.1. Supply chain process flows
The RE supply chain links the source of energy with other
Like many typical supply chains, the elements of RE supply applications. The performance of RE supply chain relates to its
chain include the physical, information, and financial flows. From conversion efficiency which includes storage, distribution, effi-
physical flow perspective, industries increasing awareness of ciency and secondary applications efficiencies.
green manufacturing processes, logistics, and products has
become relevant to its supply chain management performance. 4.1. Conversion efficiency
These issues have drawn the attention of many researchers, due
to the potential contribution of RE to the alleviation of global Conversion efficiency, considered as a key indicator for the use
environmental problems. Ilgin and Gupta [15] have reviewed of a given energy resource, differs among the RE types. Costs
environmental conscious manufacturing and product recovery associated with primary energy sources such as fossil fuels are
researches. They classified more than 540 published studies into critical. Present efforts to reduce the cost of RE acquisition and
four categories of research: environmentally conscious product use through technological improvements may not be sufficient to
design, reverse and closed-loop supply chains, remanufacturing, compete with the fossil-fuel energy production. Fig. 10 displays
and disassembly. Fig. 8 presents a pure RE supply chain flow the energy technology cost and performance data for all REs.
presented by the United Nations Development Programme [16]. In order to assess the investment for RE, a ‘‘Levelized Cost of
Electricity is portrayed as an example in this supply chain flow to Electricity’’ (LCOE) has been identified for decision making in
illustrate the relationships within the loop. In the RE supply chain, solar energy project. The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DoE)
technology is a key success factor to improve efficiency and to Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy publication [20] has
innovate the distribution network. listed higher (LCOE) costs for photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated
 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465 5455

Methods Primary Outcome Secondary Process Demand

Balneology- hot spring…

Low temperature storage
in aquifers (ATES) Electricity Generation
Steam Dry steam plant Residential
Electricity
Flash steam plant Industrial
power
Low temperature storage Binary-cycle plant
in boreholes (BTES) Agriculture- greenhouse...
Industrial-drying…
Heat Heat Pump Residential-heating
High temperature storage Vertical closed loop Aquaculture-fish…
in aquifers (HTBTES) Horizontal closed loop
Groundwater

Fig. 5. Geothermal energy process flows [9–12].

Sources Primary Outcome Secondary process Demand

Wind Turbine Electricity Industrial

Residential
Pumped Water Hydropower
Fly wheel
Battery
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Automobile…
Industrial
Residential

Fig. 6. Wind energy generation flows [13].

Sources Primary outcome Secondary process Demand

Parabolic Trough
Photovoltaic-
Systems
Electricity

Si, CdTe, Storage

CIS… - Battery
Power Tower -Flywheel Industrial
Solar - Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Systems
Heat

Parabolic Dish
Systems Residential
Storage (Heat transfer)
Thermal - Air
Solar chimney - Steam
Systems - Molten nitrate salt

Fig. 7. Solar energy generation flows [14].

solar power than for other REs [21] as shown in Fig. 11. Laboratory (NREL) categorized energy storage into three categories,
In addition, REs are not only assessed in terms of its performance power quality, bridging power, and energy management, each with
and investment but also its environmental impacts. a specific range of discharge times that affect and limit its applic-
ability [23]. There are various factors to select an electricity storage
technology. They are the storage capacity, duration of discharge,
4.2. Technology
power level, response time, cycle efficiency, and lifetime [24].
According to Denholm et al. [23], ‘‘the choice of an energy storage
State-of-art technologies have furthered the development of the
device depends on its application in either the current grid or in the
RE industry. In addition to the improvement of conversion efficiency,
renewable/VG-driven grid; these applications are largely deter-
the growth of the RE industry requires the development of technol-
mined by the length of discharge’’. Table 1 presents a summary of
ogies such as energy storage, fuel cells, and hybrid systems that
energy storage and applications [23,25].
enable RE conversion processes and expansion of RE applications.

4.2.2. Fuel cell applications

4.2.1. Types of storage technologies Fuel-cell technology has been applied for several purposes.
According to Akorede et al. [22], energy storage technologies The application of this technology was initially limited to
can be classified as battery energy storage systems, flywheels, space exploration and military purposes, but following years of
superconducting magnetic energy storage, compressed air energy development, it has been successfully implemented in power
storage, and pumped storage. The National Renewable Energy generation. Particularly in the automobile industry, fuel cells have
5456 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

Supply Manufacturing Distribution Demand

Technology Equipment
Distributor
provider Manufacturer

EquipmentSupply Equipment
Supply
Dealer/ Electricity Services
Knowledge/ Retailer
TechnologyTransfer

After Sales
Services Services
Provider
Equipment Electricity/
Rental/Leasing Energy Services Industrial User
Institutional User
SMMEs Social Use
Commercial Use

Products Services
Household
Market Subsistence/
Consumptive Uses

Fig. 8. A pure renewable energy supply chain processes [16].

Fig. 9. The concerns of renewable energy [17–19].

Fig. 10. Energy technology cost and performance data [9].

 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465 5457

50 Assumptions
18-43 Currency: 2009 US $ (real)
Real Discount Rate: 10.5%
40 Inflation Rate: 3%
Economic Lifetime: 30 years
19-35
Cents per KWh

Taxes: none
Tax credits: none
30 Debt/Equity Financing: none
Biomass Fuel Costs: AEO 2009
PV Degradation: none
CSP Technology: no storage
20 Geothermal Technology: hydrothermal

6-13 8-13 6-12 4-13

8-12
10

PV
* P
as
s al nd ind ro
CS m erm Wi W H yd
Bio oth ore ore rge
Ge fsh sh La
Of On
Current range of utility scale (greater than 5MW) PV in the U.S.

Fig. 11. Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of renewable electricity by technology (2009) [21].

Table 1
Three classes of energy storage [23,25].

Common name Example applications Technology Discharge time

Power quality Transient stability, frequency regulation Flywheel, Capacitor, Superconducting magnetic energy storage Seconds to minutes
Bridging power Contingency reserves, ramping Battery energy storage system -Lead-Acid, Ni–MH, Ni–Cd, Li-Ion Minutes to 1 h
Energy management Load leveling, Firm capacity, T&D deferral Compressed air energy storage, pumped storage, high-energy batteries Hours

been successfully used in gas-electric hybrid vehicles. Different utilization of RE. A range of associated energy-generation costs
types of fuel-cell power generators, classified as alkaline fuel cells, requires large investments. Lower conversion cost improves
polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel cells, phosphoric-acid fuel cells, market penetration, but the current conversion cost of REs cannot
molten-carbonate fuel cells, and solid-oxide fuel cells, provide compete with the traditional energy sources, such as fossil fuels.
various levels of power. The applications of each fuel-cell technology One of the methods to illustrate the differences of each energy
are based on its energy generation capability and device type source is the ‘‘efficiency coefficient’’ which is the ratio of the
(stationary, transportation, portable devices). Table 2 presents the output energy to the input energy [27]. Table 3 presents the
U.S. DoE’s comparison of fuel-cell technologies [20]. efficiency coefficients for each type of power plant (International
Atomic Energy Agency, 2002, cited in [27]).
4.2.3. Hybrid energy systems Fossil fuel prices directly affect the price of electric power and
Hybrid energy systems, which produce electric power and have influenced the selling price and consumption of RE. Govern-
hydrogen simultaneously, play a key role in the ‘‘green’’ trans- ment policies have been implemented in many countries to
portation industry. For example, Honda has developed a solar- improve the gap between these prices through tax refund,
hydrogen power station to support the commercialization of gas- certification, or premium price. Fig. 13 shows the sources of
electric hybrid vehicles. Similar systems may be designed for income for RE generators [28].
individual usage and to power residential electric appliances.
Yilanci et al. [26] described a solar-hydrogen hybrid system that 5.2. Location selection
has been applied to fuel cells, gas turbines, internal combustion
engines, boilers, and catalytic burners to produce electrical, Technologies and facilities for RE power generation and con-
mechanical, and thermal energies (Fig. 12). version should be located near natural sources of RE. Each RE
facility should be installed in a strategic location that maximizes
the energy collected and the output generated. However, some RE
5. Barriers to renewable energy development sources have considerable geographical constraints. For example,
geothermal resource is available primarily in an area called the
The use of RE has enormous benefits. Since each RE type is a ‘‘ring of fire’’, but is usually found along major plate boundaries
natural resource with inconsistent or limited availability, the where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Tidal-energy
installation of power-storage facilities in a variety of geographical generators should be located at coastlines or riversides, wind
locations is necessary. However, the development and utilization turbines should be placed in locations with strong winds, and PV
of REs face many obstacles. solar-cell facilities should be located in high-radiation zones. RE
facilities should be placed in locations that ensure the provision of
5.1. Conversion cost a sufficient and continuous resource supply.
This location selection is similar to the determination of the
Conversion efficiency, including primary and secondary con- best manufacturing location for a product, but this involves the
version processes and distribution, is a major issue in the consideration of significant costs, such as transportation and
 5458
Table 2
Comparison of fuel-cell technologies [20].

Fuel cell type Common electrolytic Operating System output Electrical efficiency Combined heat & Applications Advantages
temperature power efficiency

H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465
Polymer Solid organic polymer poly- 50  100 1C o 1 kW–250 kW 53–58% (transportation), 70–90% (low-grade  Backup power  Solid electrolytic reduces corrosion &
electrolyte perfluorosulfonic (122–212 1F) 25–35% (stationary) waste heat)  Portable power electrolyte management problem
membrane  Small  Low temperature
distributed  Quick start-up
generation
 Transportation,
 Specialty
vehicles

Alkaline Aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide 90–100 1C 10 kW–100 kW 60% 480% (low-grade  Military  Cathode reaction faster in alkaline
soaked in a matrix (194–212 1F) waste heat)  Space electrolyte, leads to higher performance
explaoration  Can use a variety of catalysts

Phosphoric acid Liquid phosphoric acid soaked in a matrix 150–200 1C 50 kW–1 MW 440% 485%  Distributed  Higher overall efficiency with CHP
(302–392 1F) (250 kW module generation  Increased tolerance to impurities in
typical) hydrogen

Molten Liquid solution of lithium, sodium, 600–700 1C o 1 kW–1 MW 45–47% 480%  Electric utility  High efficiency
carbonate potassium carbonates, soaked in a matrix (1112–1292 1F) (250 kWmodule  Large  Fuel flexibility
typical) distributed  Can use a variety of catalysts
generation  Suitable for CHP

Solid oxide Yttria stabilized zirconia 650–1000 1C o 1 kW–3 MW 35–43% o 90%  Auxiliary power  High efficiency
(1202–1832 1F)  Electric utility  Fuel flexibility
 Large  Can use a variety of catalysts
distributed  Solid electrolyte reduces electrolyte
generation  MGMT problems
 Suitable for CHP
 Hybrid/GT cycle
 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465 5459

Solar Energy

Photoelectrolysis
Thermal Energy Electrical Energy Energy Biophotolysis Energy

Thermolysis Mechanical Energy Themochemical Cycles

Electrolysis

Hydrogen

Fuel Cells Gas Turbines Internal Combustion Engines Boilers Catalytic Burners

Electrical Energy Mechanical Energy Thermal Energy

Fig. 12. Production and utilization paths of solar-hydrogen energy [26].

Table 3
storage costs. Locations farther from the market entail higher
Efficiency coefficient of power plants [27]. costs. Fig. 14 shows the locations of solar radiation zones and the
‘‘ring of fire’’ around the Pacific rim [29,30].
Type of power plant Efficiency coefficient (%)
5.3. Distribution network
Coal/lignite 39.4
Oil 37.5
Natural gas turbine 39 The complex distribution network of electrical power results
Natural gas combined cycle 54.8 from the need for an efficient system that balances supply and
Nuclear 33.5 demand and a backup system to manage disruptions due to earth-
Hydroelectric 80
Wind 35
quakes, floods, or fires. RE networks are currently linked with
Solar photovoltaic 9.4 traditional energy networks to support regional power needs. The
Biomass 28 maximization of RE resource utilization throughout the entire
Geothermal 6 traditional power network presents a challenge for the RE industry.
To deliver electricity power to each single user requires a sophisti-
cated distribution network. The RE coupling with other distribution
networks should ensure that there is an adequate supply of
electrical power to balance the demand fluctuation within a period
+ Price of certificate of time or to balance the intermittent or variability of RE resources.
Another important factor is the maneuverability of electricity power
Premium price/tax refund
Add Income + (if applicable) implying the rapid response to demand. The traditional fossil power
plant is built with a centralized or decentralized network concept for
Market price of power an economic power generation. Once disruptions happen such as
the recent tsunami hit in Japan, the control system would not be
able to quickly respond and resume back to normal condition.
Income from market
5.4. Other barriers

Conventional The assessment model of Chatzimouratidis and Pilavachi [27]

Renewable
generation cost generation cost demonstrated the costs for RE development, such as capital
investment, operation and maintenance costs, and capacity factor
Fig. 13. Sources of income for generators [28]. costs. Nevertheless, according to Munashinge and Shearer [17],
5460 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

Fig. 14. Solar radiation distribution and geothermal ‘‘the ring of fire’’ [29,30].

ECONOMIC
• Growth
• Efficiency
• Stability

Intergenerational
Valuation equity
Internalization Poverty Basic needs
Equity
Convolution
ENVIRONMENT SOCIAL
• Resilience/biodiversity Intergenerational equity • Inclusion
• Natural Resources Culture/Values •• Governance
• Pollution

Fig. 15. Three dimensions of sustainability for renewable energy development [17].

As such, several other barriers have hindered the RE deve-

Table 4 lopment. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists [31],
Energy sources and their potential negative impacts on the environment [32].
commercialization, market, and institutional barriers to RE develop-
Energy Potential negative impacts on the environment ment are present. Commercialization barriers include the under-
sources developed infrastructures, lack of economies of scale, unequal
government subsidies and taxes, and the failure to market the value
Fossil fuel Air pollution, acid rains, ozone depletion, global warming
and benefits of REs. Market barriers refer to the lack of RE informa-
potentials.
Hydrogen Thermal and chemical changes in atmosphere, ozone depletion, tion. While institutional barriers include the small size business, high
influence on microorganisms in the soils and waters, accelerated transaction and financing costs, split incentives, energy transmission
corrosion of man-made structures. costs, and green market restrictions. From the environmental per-
Wind Landscape change, soil erosion, reduced air circulation and
spective, Li [32] summarized the potential negative impacts of REs as
deterioration of local are quality.
Solar Landscape change, soil erosion, reduced solar irradiation for
shown in Table 4.
plants and vegetation.
Hydro Change in local eco-systems and local weather conditions, social
and cultural impact, induction of earthquake. 6. Improving the renewable energy supply chain
Geothermal Landscape change, underground water resource, acceleration
cooling of earth core.
Barriers to renewable energy development section enumerates
Tidal/wave Landscape change, reduced water motion/circulation and
deterioration of local water quality. the barriers in the development of RE. To overcome these barriers,
Biofuels May not be CO2 natural, may release global warming gases like governmental and scientific research involvement are necessary
methane during the production of biofuels, landscape change, to improve the RE distribution network and advanced storage
deterioration of soil productivity.
technology.
Nuclear Radiation leakage and contamination; the disposal and safe
storage of nuclear waste for hundreds of years up to hundred
thousand years in geological repositories. 6.1. Involvement of the government and researchers

Government involvement is necessary to provide financial aid

besides the above factors, there are three dimensions of sustain- and/or tax compensation in the promotion of RE. The governments
ability for RE development as shown in Fig. 15. These are the play a key role in the commercialization of RE to the market. Menz
environmental, economic, and social factors which can be barriers and Vachon [33] defined three aspects of a government policy
to RE development. regime for RE (Fig. 16).
 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465 5461

Financial incentives Rules and reputations

• Tax credits, deductions Renewable Electricity • Renewable portfolio standards
• Grants • Fuel generation disclosure
Policy Regime
• Low - interest loans
• Mandatory green power option
• Productions incentives

Regulatory changes
• Restructuring electricity market
• Retail green power choice

Fig. 16. Renewable electricity policy regime [33].

Fig. 17. Renewable energy development stage.

Table 5
of RE. These stakeholders can be grouped into the categories
Stakeholders in the development and utilization of renewable energies. shown in Table 5.
Porter [34] developed a value chain that links all stakeholders in
the fulfillment of customers’ needs. The value identification of
InternationalXdonors invest
customers and stakeholders determines a business strategy and target
National political officers (legislators, governors)
Public services (ministry of health, social security agency, ministry of finance) profit performance. According to Loucopoulos and Karakostas [35],
Scientific researchers value refers to the relative usefulness of an object. In the case of a
Renewable-energy generators and investors product or business, value defines the relative benefit of acquiring a
Local population product, or of the existence of a particular business. The RE supply
Substitute energies
Labor (unions, medical associations)
chain consists of many stakeholders with different roles. Fig. 18 shows
Commercial/private for-profit organizations the stakeholders and values of RE in the supply chain [19,33,36,37].
Nonprofit (nongovernmental) organizations, foundations
Civil society
Users/consumers
6.4. Distribution network

According to Denholm [23], RE sources should employ highly

efficient operation processes to cope with the uncertainty of
Scientific research plays important roles by implementing supply and demand. Jones et al. [38] described decoupling points
efficient conversion processes, creating and employing advanced to support supply efficiency and flexibility in meeting customer
technologies that reduce the cost of RE and facilitate the con- needs. They suggested that such decoupling would provide a
struction of an efficient RE supply chain. flexible distribution network that supports a lean-agile supply
chain system (Fig. 19). The ability to maneuver electrical power to
6.2. Commercializing the use of renewable energy rapidly respond to demand should also be considered. Moreover,
the efficiency of electrical distribution may be improved through
The utilization of RE is triggered by the desire to improve the utilization of smart grids, which monitor the energy distribu-
environmental conditions. RE conversion designs have been tion network to maximize power utilization.
included in the technology of turbines, thin-film PV cells, and
other devices. To promote market acceptance and use, RE should
6.4.1. Smart grids
become an affordable economic commodity. Such development
According to the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
would increase market consumption and replace the use of fossil-
[39], ‘‘the basic concept of Smart Grid is to improve reliability,
fuel energy in the future, as illustrated in Fig. 17.
maximize throughput, increase energy efficiency, provide consumer
A hybrid system has been developed to expand the utilization
participation and allow diverse generation and storage options’’. The
of RE. For example, hydrogen is an RE resource that can replace
Korea Smart Grid Institute [40] defined smart grids as a technology
fossil fuels, and has a storage system that supports industrial and
that integrates information technologies with power networks to
residential power needs. Hydrogen can also be converted from
optimize energy efficiency through the interactive exchange of real-
solar, wind, water, or geothermal processes during the off-peak
time information between suppliers and consumers. Smart grids are
period. There are other outcomes which can be generated from
useful IT systems to monitor and control electricity distribution. It
biomass such as bioethanol or biodiesel and fertilizers. These
also facilitates financial control function for energy providers as well
outcomes can be offered to the market like other commodities.
as users. To achieve this, the information collected from each user in
6.3. Realizing the value of renewable energies the chain must be well-managed and properly structured.

The promotion of RE depends upon stakeholders’ understand- 6.4.2. Centralized, decentralized, and distributed energy networks
ing of its profit and value. Stakeholders have a vested interest in Most traditional power plants utilize centralized networks.
the promotion of a policy, such as the generation and utilization When disruptions occur, such networks cannot respond rapidly to
5462 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

Fig. 18. The stakeholders and the values of renewable energy supply chain [19,33,36,37].

Decoupling
point

customer
Satisfied
Material
supply

Lean Agile
Processes Processes

(C) Leagile Supply

Fig. 19. A decoupling distribution networks [38].

Fig. 20. Distribution network [41]. (a) Centralized, (b) decentralized and (c) distributed.

make necessary changes or resume normal operation. For exam- distribution that is commonly limited by geographical location.
ple, Japan Fukushima nuclear power plants were damaged by the Similar to the centralized network, if one sub-network failed, the
tsunami that caused serious impact on industry productivity due subsidiary would not be able to get support from other energy
to power shortage. Decentralized networks consist of several network. Given these limitations, distributed-energy-generation
centralized sub-networks, each covering a specific area of networks have been restricted in U.S.A. and Europe for decades.
Table 6
Storage technologies [42].

Category Technology type System energy Efficiency of Illustrative Advantage Disadvantage Suitable for
density recovery economic costs Energy Power Transport
MGMT quality

nn
Advanced battery Super capacitors 0.1–5 Wh/kg 85–98% 2002: 200–1000 Long life cycle, high Low energy density Toxic nnn nnn
systems (h/kWh) effciency and corrosive
compounds

H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465
nn
Nickel Batteries 20–120 Wh/kg 60–91% 200–750 (h/kW h) High power and energy NiCd: Cadmium highly nnn nnn
densities, toxic, NiZn, NiMH and
Good efficiency Na-NiCl2 require
recycling
n
Lithium Batteries 80–150 Wh/kg 90–100% 150–250 (h/kW h) High power and energy High cost, Lithium oxides nnn nnn
densities, & salt require recycling,
High efficiency polymer solvents and
carbon must be made
inert
nn
Lead-acid batteries 25–45 Wh/kg 60–95% 50–150 (h/kW h) Low capital cost Lead requires recycling nnn nnn
nn
Zinc-Bromine flow 37 Wh/kg 75% 2 MW h battery High capacity Low energy density nnn
batteries (1.8 mh)
nn
Vanadium flow batteries 85% 1280 h/kW High capacity Low energt denisty nnn
n n
Metal-air batteries 110–420 Wh/kg  50% High energy density, Low Poor electrical nnn
cost, Environmentally rechargeability, short
benign recharge lifetime
nn n
Sodium-sulphur 150–240 Wh/kg 486% 170 h/kW High power and energy High production cost, Na nnn
batteries denities requires recycling
High efficency
nn
Fluid Storage Pumped hydro-electric N/A 75–85% 140 m-4680 m h High capacity, relatively Disturds local wildlife nnn X
for a 1000 MW low and water levels
plant cost per unit capacity
nn
Compressed air energy N/A 80% 400h/kW h at High capacity, relatively Problematic in obtaining nnn X
systems plant low sites for use,
cost per unit capacity
nn n
Mechanical Systems Flywheel 30–100 Wh/kg 90% 3,000–10,000 High power Low energy density nnn
(h/kW h)
n
Electro-Magnetic Supper conducting 97–98% 350 h/kW h at High power Health impacts for large nnn X
Systems magnets plant sacle sites
Hydrogen H2 fuel cell 1 KW–3 MW 25–58% 6,000–30,000 Can be stored longterm, Expensive catalysis or nnn nnn nnn
(h/kW h) Range processing often
of cell types for different required
applications
n n
H2 internal combusion N/A N/A nnn
engine(ICE)

n
¼ level of utilization.
nn
X ¼not applicable.

5463
5464 H.-M. Wee et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5451–5465

System Ratings
Installed systems as of November 2008
1000
10 hr 1.0 hr 0.1 hr
FC
36 sec
100
PSH
3.6 sec AEC Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor
10
CAES Compressed air
Discharge Time (hr)

EDLC Dbl-layer capacitor

0.36 sec FC Fuel cell
1
FW Flywheels
36 msec L/A Lead-Acid
0.1
Li-Ion Lithium-Ion
AEC
Na-S Sodium-sulfur
0.01 Ni-Cd Nickel-Cadmium
Ni-MH Nickel-metal hydride
PSH Pumped hydro
0.001 VR Vanadium redox
Zn-Br Zinc-bromine
0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000
Rated Power (MW)

Fig. 21. Ragone plot evaluation for storage technology selection [25,43].

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