Materials and

their structure
> 2.1 Solids, liquids and gases

" sort the sates of matiernt socs s and gases

Getting started

1 MName two zolids,

two liquids
and two gases.
2 Copyand co the table. Use the substances you listed
in ion 1. Di your reascns for each dedision with
Yyour group.
 2.1 Solids,
liquids and gases

Looking at states of matter

Everything you can see and feel is called matter. Scientists sort
matter into three growps or states called “solids’, “liquids’ and
“gases’. These states of maller behave in different ways. The
wiys they behave are called their properiies.

Solids
Solids keep the same shape. Solids take up the same amount
of space. Solids keep the same volmne. Solids cannot be
compressed (squashed) or powred.

Liquids
Liquids take the shape of the container
they are in.
Liquids can be powred. Liguids cannot be compressed.
Liquids take up the same amount of space, whatever shape
their container.
The volume of a liquid docs not change.

Gases
Gases flow like liquids.
They will fill any closed contaimer
they are in.
(Gases are very casy to compress. The volume of a gas can
change. Gases weigh very little. Generally, you cannot sce
or fecl gases, but you can sometimes smell them, and you
can fieel air moving on your face.
1 What are the three states of matter?
2 Which state of matter can be compressed (squashed) casily?
3 Which state of matter cannot be poured?
4 List the propertics of solids.
5 Name a property of liquids
that they do not share with solids.
& Name a property of gases that they share with liquids.
7 MNamca property of gases that they do not share with solids
of liquids.

Scientists look at what matter does

Scientists try to explain what they see. Here are some examples of how
matter behaves that scientists have tried to explain.
= Youcan smell food cooking in another room.
= Some substances get bigger when you heat them.
= Liguids, such as water, change to a gas when you heat them.
= Substances change from liquid
to solid if you cool them.
Scientists think about why these things happen and try to come up
with ideas to explain it. They form an hypethesis, which is a suggestion
for an explanation. This hypothesis can then be tested by carrying out
more investigations.
When an hypothesis has been tested and widely accepted as valid by
other scientists, it is called a theory.
The best theory to explain how matter behaves uses the idea of
particles. Particles are tiny portions of matter. This theory says
that all matter is made up of tiny particles arranged in
different ways.
 2.1 Solids,
liquids and gases

Particle theory
All matter is made ap of tiny particles that are much too small to see.
The partiches are arranged differently in solids, liquids and gases.

Solids
In solids the particles are arranged in a fived
pattern. The particles are held together strongly and
are tightly packed together. This is why solids have a
fixed shape.
The particles in a solid can vibrate (make smail
movements) but they stay in the zame place.
I sobeds the particies are packed togathar and
can ibeate. They stay in the same placs

Liquids
In liquids the particles touch each other.
The particles are held together weakly. The particles
can move past one another but they still touch each
other. Liquids can change shape.

Gases
In gases the particles do not towch each other.
They arc a long way apart. The partickes spread
. e
out by themselves. The particles can spread out
to fill up the space they are in. Gases can change
6,o. Q.Q,
shape.

In gases the particdes ane far apart and cn move

P—
Think like a sclentist
Madelling the particles in solids, liquids and gases
In this task, you will describe the strengths and weaknesses of a model.
Work in a small group.
* Amange yourselves in a pattemn, as if you are the partides in a salid.
* Mow armange yourselves as if you are the particles in a liquid.
* Mow arrange yoursalves as if you are the particles in 2 gas.
Questions
1 With a pariner, discuss and describe the ways in which the
particles are arranged in the three states of matter.
2 Caopy and complete these sentances to describe how
particles are arranged in solids, liquids and gases.
* In solids, the particles are aranged
* In liquids, the particles are armanged
+ In gases, the particles are amanged

Self-assessment
In what ways was your group a good model for the partide
theary? Think about how well you did for each of the solid,
liquid and gas models.
* Were you in regular rows?
* Were you touching the people around you?
* Could you change your position? fi
 2.1 Solids, liquids and gases

Explaining the properties

Matter can only flow {(be poured) if the particles can
move past one another.
Matter can only change volumee if the particles in it
can spread out or mowve clozer together.

Solids
The particles in a solid are very close together.
This makes
it difficult for the volume of a solid
1o be made smaller. Solids have a fived shape
because attractive forces hold the particles together.
These forces stop the particles from moving around.
The particles can only vibrate. This means that &
solid cannot flow.

Liquids
The volume of a liquid cannot be changed. The
particles are very close together and cannot be
compressed. The particles touch each other but
they can move past cach other. The attractive forces
between the particles are weak enough to allow
them to move but strong encugh to hold them
together.

Gases
Particles in & gas are a long way apart so they can
maove quickly in all directions. The particles can
maove casily becanse there are no attractive forces
between them. This means that gas has no fixed
shape or volume.
When you compress a gas, the particles move closer
togetherand the gas takes wp less space.

No particles?
A space where there are no particlesat all is called
a VaIcumn, A vacuum contains nothing.

25
2 Materials
and their structure >

Think like a sclentist

Particle theory
Scientists observe the world around them and think carefully about what they see.
Development of the particle theory was based on the cbservations that scientists made
about how solids, liquids and gases behave.
Scientists saw that most solids cannot
be compressed. Can you think of any solids that
do not fit the rules of partide theory? Think about the properties of a sponge or
a marshmallow. Can a sponge be compressed?
Questions
1 Use particle theory to explain how a sponge can be a solid, but it can also
be compressed.
2 How well does particle theory explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases?
3 What are the strengths of the particle theory?
4 What are the weaknesses of the particle theory?

States
of matter
On a large piece of paper, draw three large squares and |abel them 'solid’, ‘liquid’ and
‘gas’, like this. Leave space around them.

Solid Liquid Gas

In each square, draw how the particles are arranged in that state of matter.
In the spaces around the squares, write the properties of the three states of matter.
 2.2 Changes
of state

> 2.2 Changes of state

* practise measuring the volume and the temperature
of 2 liquid
= leam what happens when matter changes state

With a partner, draw three diagrams to show the particle anis

structure of a solid, a liquid and a gas. boil
Be ready to show the class when you are asked to do so. baifing point
change of state
condensation
condense
evaporation
freeze
 2.2 Changes
of state

Measuring
Measuring volume
‘When you measure the volume of a liquid you wse a measuring eylinder.
The liquid forma a curve at the top. Thiz iz called
the menisces.
You measure the volume from the bottony of the meniscus. To do this,
you must make sure that your eye is level with the meniscus.

Measuring temperature
‘When you measure the temperature you use a thermome ler . The liquid
inside the thermometer expands as it gets hotter, o it rises up inside the
thermorneter. You read the temperature from the scale. Make sure that
your eye iz level with the top
of the fiquid in the thermometer.
A tharmomaes
Questions
1 Look at the diagram. What is the volume of water in each
measuring cylinder?

AT c T
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2 Materials
and their structure >

2 What are the temperatures shown on the thermameters?

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3 L

e a scientist
Measuring
the temperature when you heat water
In this task you will take accurate measurements.

Safety
Wear safety spectacles. Take care when handling hot water. Always stand up to carry cut
practicalwork. f you spill any hot water it will not be on you.
Work in groups of two or three. Before you start the activity, discuss
in your aroup what
other safety measures you will take. Check these with your teacher.
 2.2 Changes
of state

water supply

7
i

1 Accurately measure 150 cm? of water into a beaker.

2 Place a thermometer with its bulb in the water. Use a clamp stand, as shown in
the illustration.
This is so that you measure the temperature
of the water, not the
temperature
of the bottom of the beaker.
3 Measure
the temperature.
4 Record this in a table. (Copy and extend the one below)
alwlm|=|e
2 Materials
and their structure >

5 Heat the water.

& Use the thermometerto measure the temperature every minute.
7 Repeat until the water is boiling vigorously.
Cuestions
1 Plot your temperature measurements on a graph. Put the time along the horizontal
axis and the temperature on the vertical axis.
Describe your graph. You could complete these sentences.
* When we heated the water, the temperature
+ The longerwe heated the water, the the temperature
* The increase in temperature was
‘fou could mention how quickly the temperature increased and if the temperature
increased by the same amount each minute.
What happened to the temperature of the water when it was boiling?
Why do you think this happened?
The thermometer is held in the water so that it does not rest on the bottom of the
beaker. Why?
 2.3 Explaining changes of state

> 2.3 Explaining changes

of state

et :
* useamodel
to illustrate the particle theory.

1 For each process, write down the changes of state. The first
one has been started for you.
* Melting: solid 1o
* Condensing:
* Freezing:
2 For each statement, decide if it appliesto a solid,
a liquid or
2 gas. Some may apply to moreT:n one state of matter.

particles in can be can be

regular rows pourad compressed

partides has a fixed can change \

spread out volume its shape

cannot be has a
comprassed fixed shape

Check with a partner. Are you cormect?

2 Materials
and their structure >

Changes of state
Heating solids
When solids are heated they expand
(zet bigger).
The particles
in solids are arrangedin a fixed pattern.
The particles
arc held together strongly and are tightly packed.
The particles
in the solid vibrate. When the solid is heated,
beat emergy is iramsferred to the particles in the solid.
The more energy the particles have, the more they vibrate.
As the particles vibrate more, they take up more space.
The particles are still held in position by the atiractive forces
botween them.

Melting solids
When solids are heated more strongly, they melt. They become
liquid. (Heating more strongly means that even more heat
energy is transferred1o the particles.)
The particles in a olid vibrate more and more as heat energy
s transferred to them. The particles vibrate so much that
the atteactive forces betwesn them are not strong enough to
hold them in & fived pattern. The particles can slide past one
another — they can now move, not just vibrate.
The forces are still strong enough for the particlesto stayin
touch with one another. The more the liquid is heated, the
more energy is transferred to the particles
and the more the
particles vibrate and move.

The particles virate so misch that some sscape e srong forces and G mave
awound =5 @ liquad.

_—-—-———5
2 )
Boiling liquids
‘When liquids
are heated, they evaporate
and boil.
The particles in liquids touch cach other.
The particles are held together weakly.
The partiches move more as heat energy is transferred
to them. Some particles have enough encrgy to break
the weak attractive forces holding them together.
These particles can move freely and escapeas The partides mavs 5o quickly thal some: cscaps
gas particles. ag=.

Cooling gases
The particles in a gas are free to mowve anywhere
and spread out. There are no forces holding them.
When a gas gets cooler it condenses to form a liguid.
‘When gas particles reach a cold surface, some of
the heat energy from the particles transfers to the
surface. The particles move less and get closer
together. They form a liquid.

Freezing liquids
‘When
a liquid freezes it becomees a solid. ‘When the particles hit 2 cold suface, ther mavemaent
showes down.
The partiches in a quid can move and flow past
each other. As heat energy is transferred from the
particles to the surroundings,the partickes move
more slowly and the lquid gets cooler.
The cooler the liquid, the less energy the particles
have. The bess energy the particles have, the kess
able they are to move or slide past one another.
Eventually, the particles have so little energy they
cannot move and flow anymore — they can only
Particies in i {laft). Partckes in 2 solid fright).
vibrate. They become arranged in a fived pattern
to form a solid.

CQuestions
1 Explain why a solid cxpands when it is heated.
2 Use particle theory to explain why solids and liquids cannot be
compressed (squashed into a smaller volume).
3 Usc particle theory to explain why liquids and gascs
can flow.
Z Materials
and their structure )

4 Use particle theory to explain how

x liquid changes to a pas.
5 Use particle theory to explain how a liquid changes to become
a solid.
& Lisc partick theory to explain what happens when steam in the
‘bathroom hits a cold surface, such s a mirror.
T Copy this flow chart. The arrows represent the processes involved
when matter changes state. Add the name for each process, A-D.

solid ligquid — gas

salid liquid gas

C.. B D..........

Think like a scientist

Modelling changes of state
In this task, your class will model the changes of state by amanging yourselves as
particles. You will need a lot of space.
Solid
to liquid
* Asa class, amange yourselves as if you are the particles in a solid.
* Imagine the particles are being heated. Move as if you are being heated gently.
Move as the partide theory suggests you should.
* Imagine the particles are now being heated strongly, so that the salid melts and
becomes a liquid. Remember to behave as the particle theary suggests you should.
Question
1 Describe how you had to act to illustrate the behaviourof particles as a solid melts.
Think about how you behaved. Was the model a good or a bad model for particle
theory? Explain.
Liquid to gas
* As a class, amange yourselves as if you are the partides in a liquid.
* Imagine the particles are being heated. Move as if you are being heated gently.
* Imagine the particles are now being heated strongly
so that the liquid boils.
Rememberto behave as the particle theory suggests you should.

_
“
 2.3 Explaining changes of state

Question
2 Describe how you had to act to illustrate the behaviour of particdles icfnld
evaporates and then boils. Think about how you behaved. Was the mode
or a bad model for particle theory? Explain.
Gas to liquid
* Asa class, arrange yourselves as if you are the particles in a gas.
* Imagine part of the room is a cold surface. As you move nearto the surface you must
behave as particle theory suggests. You should start to condense to form a liquid.
Question
3 Desaibe the way you had to behave to illustrate the I:ehaww 35 agas
condenses. Think about how you behaved. Was the model a Drabadrnodel
for partide theory? Explain.
Liquid to solid
* Asa class, arrange yourselves
as the particles
in a liquid. Make sure you move as
particle theory suggests.
* MNow imagine the liquid has been placed in a freezer. Behave as particle theory
suggests, as you become a solid.
Question
4 Describe the way you had to behave to illustrate the behaviourof particles as a liquid
freezes to form a solid. Think about how you behaved. Was the modal a good ora
bad model for particle theory? Explain.

fure of solids

mmary checklist
 leamn about the water cyde
fic words to describe stages of the water cycle.

groundwater
open water
precipitation
surface run-off
transpiration
water cycle
water vapour
o
 2.4 The water cyde

The water cycle

‘Water is vital for all living things. Our bodics are made up of at beast
607 water.
‘Wateron Earth i= constantly moving. The water moves between rivers,
lakes, oceans, the atmosphere and the land.It is recycled over and over
again in a continuous system called the water eycle. You are still using
the same water that the ancient Grecks and the Romans used. The Earth
‘has been recycling water for more than four billion vears.
Z Materials
and their structure )

What happens during the water cycle?

Water moves into the atmosphere
Energy from the Sun heats the Earth and the temperature
of the water in the rivers, lakes and ooeans increases. When
this happens, some of the liquid water forms water vapour,
which moves into the atmosphere. This is called evaporation.
This happens because some of the particles in the liquid
water gain enough energy to break free from the forces
holding them together and they change 10 a pas. Water
can aleo evaporate into the atmosphere from plants; this
s called transpiration.

Water in the atmosphere cools down

As the water vapour goes up into the atmosphere, it cools
and changes back into Iittle droplets of water in the air,
forming clouds. This process is called condensation. Tt
happens because the particles in the water vapour lose
energy and cannot move so quickly. Air currents high in the
atmosphere move the clouds around the world.

Water falls from clouds

When a lot of water has condensed, the water droplets in
the clouds become too heavy for the air to hold them. The
droplets fall back to Earth as rain. If the drops become
colder they may form snow, hail or skeet. This process is
called precipitation.
 2.4 The water cycde

Woater falls on the Earth

The precipitation that falls then collects
in rivers and open water such as large
lakes and the oceans.
How it is collected depends on where it
lands. Some precipitation will fall directly
onto the rivers, lakes and oceans and will
evaporate, then the cycle stars again.
If the precipitation falls on plants it may
evaporate from the leaves back to the
atmosphere or trickle down to the ground.
The plant roots in the ground may then
take up some of this water.

Water in the ground

Some of the water from precipitation will soak into the soil and rocks
as gromsdwater. Some of this water will stay in the shallow soil layer and
will mowve towards streams and rivers. When groundwater soaks deeper
into the sodl, it refills underground stores.
In cold climates the precipitation may build up on land as snow, ice or
glaciers. If the temperatures rise, this solid snow and ice will melt into
liquid water, which scaks into the ground or flows into rivers or the
ocean.
Some of the precipitation will soak into the soil and move through
the ground until it reaches the rivers or the open water, large lakes
and the occans.
‘Water that reaches the surface of the land may flow directly across the
ground into the rivers, lakes and oceans. This water is called surface
rue-ofl. When therc is a lot of surface run-off, soil can be carried of
the land and into the rivers. This can cause them to become silted up
and blocked.
2 Materials
and their structure >

Water cycle postar

Make a poster to show the water cycle. Rememberto use the
scientific terms. You should make your poster as clear and
colourful
as you can.

Peer assessment
Swap your | ‘with someone else i ir class. What do
hmm?afldath;fiw&mfix

1 ‘What are the different

types of precipitation?
2 How does rain form?
3 Usc partide theory to expluin how a pool of water on the
road disappears.
4 Where docs your drinking water come from?
5 What methods have people used to ensure they always have
4 supply of water? You may necd to do some research.
& What do we use water for in our bodies?
7 What other things do we use water
for?
& Think about
all the water you used today. Try to work out how
‘much water
you use in onc day.

Summary checklist
 2.5 Atoms, elements and the Pericdic Table

> 2.5 Atoms, elements and

the Periodic Table

* leam what an atom and an element are

= find out about different atoms and elements
* leam about the Pericdic Table
¢ use symbols to represent
the names of elements.

Getting started Key words

1 Draw a diagram to show how particles are amanged in a solid

and explain how the arrangement of particles changes when
the solid melts.
2 Whatdo you need to do to a solid to make it melt?
Z Materials
and their structure )

What are atoms?

Ower 2000 years ago, a Greek philosopher called Democritus
suggested that everything was made up of tiny picces. Democritus
suggested that, if you could keep on cutting up a substance into
amaller and smaller picces, you would end up with a very small
piece that could not be cut up any more.
Democritus called his tiny pieces of muatier aloms.
Atom means “cannot be divided™.
We now know that atoms really do exist. Today we can even
sce some of the large kinds of atom, using special microscopes
called scanning tunnelling microscopes. The photograph shows
the atoms in some carbon wanoiubes.
(Nano means “very, very small’.}

Different types of atom

There are many different types of atom. Scientists have discovered
o4 different types of atom that eccur naturally in the universe.
Another 24 kinds of atom have been made in laboratories.
Some substances are made up of just a single kind of atom.
A substance made of just one kind of atom is called an clement .
For example, carbon is made only of carbon atoms. Gold is made
only of gold atoms. Silver is made only of silver atoms.
Carbon, gold and silver are examples of elements.
Each type of atom has different propertics. This is why different
elements have different propertics.

1F you couldsee soeme of the atorms i the sl ring, thay

Thesa rings ar madk from puss sther. woukd look something Bk this.
 25 Atoms, elements and the Periodic Table

Questions
1 What arc atoms?
2 If there are 94 different kinds of naturally occurring atom,
how many different naturally occurring elements are there?

Atoms joining together

I six of the clements, such as neon (which is a gas), atoms move around
freely, not attached to one another. But in most elements, such as gold
and other metals, atoms are packed closely together.
In a small number of elements, such as oxygen and sulfur.atoms join
together to form small particles. An oxygen partickeis made from two
oxygen atoms. A sulfur particle is made from eight sulfur atoms.

Aromeol neon Asome

of gold

Particlos af coygen Particka

of adfur

Arranging the elements

Scientists have developed a very useful way of arranging
the clements.
This is called the Periodic Talsle.
The full Periodic Tablk containingall of the 118 known clements (that
is 94 natural and 24 man-made) is wery large and complex. (There may
b one on the wall of your science laboratory.) You are just goingto
ook at the first 20 clements.
i
[ metals
[7] non-metals " He
- el

x € N o F Ne
bomn | crton | nEgEE | CEGEN | focdne | Deon

S . 5 a Ar

T TT
Groups
and periods
The Periodic Table i organised into rows and colemns. The rows are
called periods. The columns are called groops.
The atoms are organissd so that, as you read across each row (period)
from left to right, the atoms increase in mass. Hydrogen atoms have the
smallest mass. then helium atoms, then Ethivm stoms, and so on

Chemical symbols
Each of the clements has been given a symbal.
This is a useful shorthand way of referring to them.
Sometimes the symbol is the first Ahsminium, Al Zinc,Zn
Ietter of the English name of the \ - o
clement. For example. the symbol
for oxyzen is 0.
Sometimes the symbol is the first
ktter of the English name plus
another letter from its name.
For example. the symbol for helium Lead, P
EHe
Sometimes
the symbol is taken from Copper.Ca
another language. For cxample, the
symbaol for sodium is Na, from the

The first letter of the symbol is \

always upper case and the second o, Fe
keiter, if there is one, is always lower case.
 2.5 Atoms, elements and the Pericdic Table

Questions
3 What are the names of the clements
with the symbols Mg, Be,
Liand N7
4 Find the symbols for the clements aluminium, boron, fluorine
and potassiem.
5 Which clement has atoms with the smallest mass?
& Which of the clements in the first 20 clements of the Periodic Table
has atoms with the greatest mass?
7 Give the names
(not symbols)
of two clements in the same period
A8 MAZNCSIm.
B Give the symbols (not names)
of two clements in the same group
as helium.

Metals and non-metals

The Periodic Table i organised so that elements with similar properties
are close together.
In the diagram of the Periodic Table, all the elements that are medals are
in yellow boxes, All the clements that are non-metals arein bluc boxes.
2 Mater s and their structure

Learning the symbols for the elements

Here is a list of twenty elements and their symbols. Your task is to make up a game to help
you learn them. You could make one set of cards with the names on them and anather set
with the symbols on them. Think how you could use these to make a game.
Your game could be for one or two people, you decide.
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Hydrogen H Sedium | Na
Helium He Magnesium | Mg
Lithium Li Aluminium | Al
Berghinr: Be " Siicon | S
Boron B PhosEhDrus Jl P
Carbon [ Sulfur | 5
Nitrogen N Chlorine i Cl
Oxygen (o] Argon | Ar
Fluorine F Potassium | K
Meon MNe Calcium | Ca

| can explain what an atom and an efement are.

| can identify twenty elements and their symbols.
| 1 can use symbals to represent elements,
| 1 can describe the Perlodic Table.
 2.6 Compounds and formulae

> 2.6 Compounds and formulae

Getting started

*You have three minutes. Test your partner an the symbols for
the elements.
2 Materials
and their structure >

What is a compound?
You have lookedat elements
in the Periodic Table. An clement
is made
up of only one type of atom. Many substances are made up of more
than one type of atom. If the different types of atom are joined tightly
together, then the substance is a compomnd.
The chemical term for two atoms joining tightly together is booding.
In a compound, two
or more different kinds of atom are bonded.
For example,
when sodium atoms bond with chlorine atoms, they
form the compoundsodium chioride.

Properties of elements and

compounds
A compound is very different from the elements from which it is made.
When two different clements arc bonded, they completely lose the
propertics of the individual elements. The compound has totally
new propertics.
The first twa photographsshow the two clements sodium and chlorine.
The third photograph shows the compound that is made when sodium
and chlorine atoms bond together. This compound — sodium chloride -
iz not at all like either sodium or chlorine.

akamnent elemant

You may have caten some sodium chloride today. Sodium chloride
s common salt. You would not want to eat any sodium or
chlorine, though.
 2.6 Compounds
and formulae

Questions
1 Describe two ways in which sodium chloride
is different
from sodium.
2 Deseribe two ways in which sodium chloride is different
from chlorine.

Naming compounds
Each compound has & chernical name. The chemical name usually tells
you the elements
that the compound is made from.
There are important mulesto remember when naming compounds.
= Ifthe compound contains a metal, then the name of the metal
comes first in the name of the compound.
= Ifthe compound contains a non-metal, the name of the non-metal
iz usually changed. For example, the compound made from sodium
(2 metal) and chlorine (a non-metal) is not sodium chloring, but
sodium chlorde.
When two clements
form a compound
the name often ends in “ide”.

Questions
‘Which twa elements are combined in sodium chloride?
W

Which
two clements are comhined in hydrogen sulfide?
Which two clements
arc combined in magnesium oxide?
oo

A student wrote this name for a compound

made
of caleium and swlfur:
sulfur colcivm
‘What s wrong with this name?
‘Write the correct
name for the compound.

Some compounds contain two different

clements, plus a third element — oxygen.
These com pounds often have names ending
with “ate’. For example, a compound of
calcium, carbon and oxygen
is called
cilcium carbonate.
Thsie are aystals of copger sulfate. Copper sulfate = 2
compound mads up af copger, sullur and ceygen.

==
® 3
2 Materials
and their structure )

Ouestions
7 Which three clements are combined in calcium nitrate?
& Which
three ckments arc combinedin magnesivm carbonate?
% Which three clements are combined in lithium sulfate?
Sometimes, the name of a compound tells you how many of each kind
of atom are bonded together.

00
A panice of carbon deoxida
60
A particls af carbon mancuds

Carbon dioxide particles are made up of one carbon atom joined to two
oxygen atoms. “Di” means twio.
Carbon monoxide particles are made up of one carbon atom joined to
one oxygen atom. “‘Mon”or ‘mono’ means one.

Particle diagrams
Particle diagrams, like these for carbon diexide and carbon monoxide,
show which atoms of which elements make up the particle.
Tt is easy to decide if a substance is a compound by looking at the
particle diagram. If there are different kinds of atom bonded together,
then it is & com pound.

mgmwt‘t
dhowide, (0, H,o oxygen, 0, methane,CH,
Carbon dioxide, water and methane are all compounds because their
particles are made up of different kinds of atom. Oxygen is an clement
because the atoms in the particle are both oxygen atoms.
 2.4 Compounds
and formulae

Using formulae
Every compound has a chemical name. For example, the compoundof
sodivm and chlorine i sodium chloride. Some compounds also have an
everyday name. For example, sodium chloride is aleo known
as common salt.
Every compound also has a formeusls (the plural of this word is
Sforsizdae). The formula contains the symbols of the clements that arc
bonded together in the compound.
The table shows the chemical names and formulae of six compounds.

calcium oxide Cal one calcium atom

bonded with ane
oxygen atom
carbon dioxide co, ane carbon atom
bonded with two
oxygen atoms
carbon monoxide Cco one carbon atom
bonded with one
oxygen atom
hydrogen sulfide H,5 two hydrogen atoms
bondead with one
sulfur atom
calcium carbonate | CaCO, one calcium atom,
ane carbon atom
and three oxygen
atoms bonded
tagether
sodium hydroxide NaOH one atom of sodium,
one atom of ciygen
and one atom of
hydrogen bonded
together

Be very careful reading the symbols of the clements. You do not want to
confuse the symbol for carbaon, C, with the symbol for caleium, Ca.
“The litthe number written below and to the right
of some symbols tells
vou how many atoms of each element are found in the particle of the
compound. If there is no number, it means there is just one atom of
that element.
2 Materials
and their structure >

Ouestions
10 Which of these substances
are clements,
and which are compounds?
‘Explainyour answer.

K 0, NaCl Al € CaCl, H,
11 The formula for sulfur dioxide is SO,
a How many different elements
are combined in sulfur dioxide?

b How many atoms

of oxygen are combined with each atom
of sulfur?
12 The formulafor water is HO.
a Which two clements
are combined in water?

b What does the formula

tell you aboutthe numbers of each
kind of atom that are combined together?
13 The compound with the formula OO s called carbon monoxide.
‘Bugpest whyit is not simply called ‘carbon oxide’.
14 Suggest
the names of the compounds
with these formulae:
a MgO

b NaCl
€ CaCl,
15 The formula for sodium hydroxide is NaOH; the formula
for potassium hydroxide is KOH.
Which two elements do you think are contained in all hydroxides?
16 What is the name of the compound with the formula LiOH?
17 How many different elements are combined together in LiOH?
 2.6 Compounds and formulae

*You are going to make models ofat least five of the compounds
mentioned in this topic.

* coloured card or paper, scissars and glue

Cut out circles of different colours to represent the different

atoms of the elements.
2 Write the symbol for that element on the atom.
Asrange them to form the formula of one of the compounds
mentioned in this topic.
4 Stick them on to a poster and write the name of the
compound and its fermula undemeath.
Dizplay them in your classroom.

SE— .
| can explain the difference between elements and compounds.
__ | can name compounds.
| can use symbols to represent elements and compounds.
 nd their structure

> 2.7 Compounds and mixtures

* leam about the difference between a compound and a

mixture
* give examples of mixtures.

Getting started

Which of these are elements and which are compounds?

nitrogen carbon dioxide calcium chloride sodum
o, Ca0 CH, H,O K
* What is the difference between an element and a
compound?
* Discuss with a partner and be prepared to share with
the class.
 2.7 Compounds
and mixtures

Compounds and mixtures

‘When atoms of elkements are bonded tightly to form a compound, the
propertics of the compound are completely different from the: propertics
of the elements that it i made from.
For example, iron is a metal. It is hard, grey, strong, conducts heat and
electricity and is magnetic.
Sulfur is a non-metal. It i yellow, brittle, does not conduct heat or
electricity and is not magnetic.

This miner & carmyng baskoes of sulfur from the cater of 2 vakmno This blacksmigh 15 using won 1o make 3 bracelot.
In Indonesia.

When these two clements are heated, they combine

. together to form the compound iron sulfide. Iron
sulfide ia not magnetic and does not condusct heat
/ or electricity.

y sifuratom, ron aiom

o."—‘8%
Whian o and sulfis e heatod toguthes, on storms and adis
atoems band togethar to farm the compound iron sulfide.
Z Materials
and their structure. )

Think like a sclentist

Using iron and sulfur
‘fou are goingto use iron and sulfur to make a mixture
and a compound. This will help
you understand the differences between a mixture and a compound.

Safety
Do mot touch your face or eyes when handling the iron filings. The pieces have sharp
edges and can damage your skin and eyes. Wear safety glasses. Use the mineral woalto
phug the mouth of the bailing tube. Carry this activity out in a well-ventilated room.
Mixing
iron and sulfur
1 Place some iron filings in a beaker.
2 Add some yellow powdered
sulfur.
3 Stir the mixture so that the two
elements
are spread out evenly.
‘You now have a mixture of iron and
sulfur. The iron and sulfur
both stll
have their properties.
They have not
changed chemically
in any way. The
different properties of the two
elements can be used to separate
them from the mixture.
4 Use a magnet to remove the iron filings.
Making a compound from iron and sulfur
1 Make a mixture of iron and sulfur, just as you did in steps 1-3.
2 Heat some of the iron and sulfur mixture in a boiling tube.
3 Stop heating as soon as the mixture startsto glow. The iron and sulfur will combine
together and form iron sulfide.
4 Leave the tube to coal.
5 Use a magnet to try to separate the iron. You can try through the wall of the tube.
 2.7 Compounds
and mixtures

Questions
1 Descibe the appearance of:
a amixture of iron and sulfur
b the iron sulfide.
2 Can you remove the iron from the iron sulfide by using a magnet?
Explain
your answer.

Air is a mixture
‘When you mix iron and sulfur together, you make a mixture
of two elements. TER. nitragen
In science, the word pure is used to describe something that
only contains a single substance. Pure water contains only
wuter, with no other substances mixed with it
A mixture i not pure. It is made up of different
kinds of particle that are mixed together. The mixture
may be of clements, compounds or both. There are
solids, liquids and gases that are mixtures.
For cxample, air is & mixture of several different clements I
and compounds. Air contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon 1% carbon dicuide, 1% cooygen
i
dioxide, it of some
water vapour and small quantitics argon,
— waterSyvapour

The compasition
of air varies because
the amount of water A PIe chart showng tha compasition
af ai.
vapour changes all the time, depending on the weather.
The amount of carbon diexide and other gases also change. This can be
a result of malural emissions, such as when animals and plants produce
carbon dioxide when they respire. Plants also use carbon dioxide when
they make food. so this removes carbon dioxide from the air. The
changes in the composition of air can also be as a result of human
activity increasing the amount of carbon dioxide that is given cutasa
result of burning fossil fuels. Other forms of pollution also change the
composition of the air.
The composition of air has changed over millions of yvears:
at one time there was much less oxygen in the atmosphere.
Z Materials
and their structure )

R
carbon diaside
» forq,'ese
&F e ol
n.:*;f % e

nitragen ?.‘” L !‘ &

“'% ‘*?I tq §

* & e % %

M&:mdmimflw:

Questions
‘The diagram shows some particles in air. The red circles represent oxygen
atoms. The black circles represent carbon atoms. The blue circles represent
nitrogen atoms. The white circles represent hydrogen atoms.
1 Which iz the most common element in air?
2 How many different kinds of substance
are shown in the diagram?
3 Which is the keast common compound in this sample of ais?

Mineral water is a mixture

The label on a bottle of mineral water lists many minerak.
These i more than just water in the bottle. The bottle contains
a mixture of water and other substances.
The minerals are dissolved in the water. The mineral water is a

it

Ouestion
4 Look at the picture of a mincral water label.
List the three most abundant minerals in this bottle of
‘minecral water_
 2.7 Compounds
and mixtures

Is water really a mixtura?

You are going to investigate if drinking
water contains anything other
than water.

Safety
Wear szfety glasses. Take care during
step2 as the solution may startto spit.
Do not touch the evaporating basin
with your hands — use tongs.
Read the health and safety notes before you start.
1 Put some water in the evaporating basin and heat it until it boils.
Once the water starts to boil, tun the heat down and continueto heat
it gently.
3 When you have evaporated off some of the water (or the solution has started to spit)
remove
it from the heat.
4 Leave the evaporating basin to cool. The water may take a day or two to evaporate
completely. [t will depend on the temperature.
Questions
1 Use ideas about particles to explain why the water evaporated.
2 What was left
in the evaporating basin?
3 Where has this substance come from?
4 Was the water you used pure water, or was it a mixture of water and other substances?
Explain your answer.
5 Why did you need to wear safety glasses?
Imagine you are given a parcel. You've been told
you cannot it for a few days. But you're
desperate to know what's inside!
‘What would you do?
* How could you get some information about
what is inside?
+ What sort of things could you find out?
+ What sort of things could not be found out
without looking inside?
Each group will be given a parcel with a number
on it.
1 Yourg has a few minutes to find out as
much as they can about what is in the parcel
but you must not open the parcel.
2 Discuss ideas in your group and try to give
reasons for your ideas.
3 Write down your ideas on a piece of paper ora
sticky note.
4 Swap parcels with another group. Repeat staps
1 and2. Write your ideas on a new piece of
paperor sticky nate.
5 Repeat until you have tried to discover what is inside all the parcels.
When all the groups have examined all the parcels, work togetheras a dlass to create a
poster about how you camied out the investigation.
Each group will share their ideas, with reasons on each parcel, with the whole dlass.
By discussing this with all the other groups the class can work together to reach some
conclusions for each parcel.
This is how scientists work_ They cannot always see or touch what they are investigating.
Scientists have to use the information that is available to come with ideas.
Check your Progress
2.1 Which state of matter has the strongest forces between its particles?

2.2 Name the state

of matter that fits each deseription._
a Particks do not towch one another.
b Purticles are close together in a regular pattern.
© Particles are closely packed but not in a regular pattern.
2.3 Water in 4 puddle on 2 pathway disappearson & warm day. Explain what
happens to the water particles.
2.4 a Which arc the two correct statements about liquids?
Liquids can flow and be poured into a container.
The particles in liquids are far apart.

The particles in liquids are arranged randomly.

The particles in a liquid can only vibrate.

Liquids only form at temperatures above 100 °C.

A liquid changes to a solid when it freczes.

Describe what happens to the particles during this process.

2.5 Which of these terms matches the two facts?

precipitation evaporation condensation groundwater
This falls from clouds.
Rain, snow and hail are forms of this.

This is what happens when water vapour cools down.

This is a change from water vapour to a liquid.

When this happens, liquid water changes to water vapour.

Water from rivers and the ocean is taken up into the atmosphere.
2.6 Zaraheated a liquid and recorded its temperature every minute.
Here arc her results,

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a Copy the axcs and labels below onto graph paper.

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Temperaturs in*C 404

2 4 5
Time in minutes

Plot Zara's results on the grid.

 Diraw a fine of best fit through the points you have plotted.

Which reading does not fit the pattern?

Suggest a reason for this.
‘What happens to the temperature between 5 and 8 minutes?

Explain why this happens.

The diagrams in the boxes show different arrangements of particles,
where each colour represents a different atom.

B O |
® &
®9 @

Giive the letter of the diagram that represents:

a partickes of 2 compound
b particles of an element

c atoms of 2 mixture
atoms of an clement.
Give the symbol for each elemsent.

T eSS T

oxygen
hydrogen

calbeium
boren
Mame the clement with the given symbaol.

Si
Explain why scientists use symbols for the elements.

Explain why some symbols, such as Cl and Si, have two letiers.